Among the statements given, the true statement about COVID-19 testing is that primary antibodies bind to the mRNA in the COVID-19 sample to indicate for the patient being positive or negative for the coronavirus.
COVID-19 testing is crucial to determine if a person has contracted the virus and to prevent its spread. There are different types of COVID-19 tests, including PCR tests, antigen tests, and antibody tests.Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests detect the genetic material of the virus by amplifying it to detectable levels. In a PCR test, tagged primers bind to the viral RNA in the COVID-19 sample to indicate if the patient is positive or negative for the coronavirus.
PCR tests are highly accurate, but they require a laboratory to perform, which can lead to delays in obtaining results.Antigen tests detect proteins from the virus by using a sample from a nasal or throat swab. In an antigen test, tagged primers bind to the cDNA in the COVID-19 sample to indicate if the patient is positive or negative for the coronavirus.
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Drs. Frank and Stein are working on another monster. Instead of putting in a pancreas, they decided to give the monster an insulin pump that would periodically provide the monster with insulin. However, their assistant Igor filled the pump with growth hormone instead. Using your knowledge of these hormones, describe how the lack of insulin and the excess growth hormone would influence the monster as a child and an adult, assuming it reached adulthood and Igor kept filling the pump with GH.
The lack of insulin and the excess growth hormone would influence the monster as a child and an adult, assuming it reached adulthood and Igor kept filling the pump with GH, as follows: Childhood: During childhood, insulin plays an essential role in ensuring that growing bodies obtain the energy they need to develop and grow.
Without insulin, sugar builds up in the bloodstream, resulting in hyperglycemia. The child would be at a greater risk of developing type 1 diabetes. As a result, the monster would have a considerably lower than normal weight and an inadequate height because insulin regulates the body's use of sugar to create energy, and insufficient insulin makes it difficult for the body to turn food into energy. Adulthood:In adults, a lack of insulin leads to the development of type 1 diabetes, which can result in long-term complications such as neuropathy, cardiovascular disease, and kidney damage.
High levels of GH result in the body's tissues and organs, including bones, becoming too large. The monster will have acromegaly, which is a condition that results in the abnormal growth of bones in the hands, feet, and face.Growth hormone promotes growth in normal amounts in the body, but excess GH can result in acromegaly. Symptoms of acromegaly include facial bone growth, the growth of the feet and hands, and joint pain. In addition to acromegaly, the excessive GH in the monster would lead to the development of gigantism.
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if a 30 kilobase RNA is turned into a DNA molecule how many base
pairs are there
The base pairs present in the DNA molecule if a 30 kilobase RNA is turned into a DNA molecule are 30,000 base pairs. RNA (ribonucleic acid) differs from DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) in that it is single-stranded and uses the sugar ribose rather than deoxyribose and the nitrogenous base uracil instead of thymine.
The presence of uracil instead of thymine is the most significant difference between RNA and DNA. Uracil is a nitrogen-containing base that is similar to thymine. Uracil is less stable than thymine because it lacks the methyl group that thymine has. As a result, RNA is more easily cleaved by nucleases than DNA since the absence of a methyl group on the uracil base makes it more reactive than thymine. Because RNA is less stable than DNA, it has a shorter lifespan and is typically broken down more quickly.
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Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a hospital-acquired (nosocomial) infection that often affects bed-ridden patients with serious consequences. Staphylococcus aureus is found on the human skin. A. What does it mean to say that Staphylococcus aureus has become resistant to the antibiotic methicillin? What happens to these cells in the presence of this beta-lactam antibiotic? B. Methicillin is a synthetic version of penicillin. This class of antibacterials inhibits the synthesis of the bacterial cell wall. If you were trying to treat a patient with MRSA, describe another potential target for antibiotic therapy. What other antibiotic mode of action might you attempt to use? For the toolbar proc ALTE1/DC) or AITLENLE 10 (Mae)
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a strain of Staphylococcus aureus that has become resistant to the antibiotic methicillin.
Beta-lactam antibiotics such as methicillin work by inhibiting the synthesis of the cell wall of bacterial cells. In the presence of this antibiotic, susceptible cells undergo lysis, and the bacteria die. MRSA cells, on the other hand, have a mutation in the gene that codes for the penicillin-binding protein PBP2
If treating a patient with MRSA, another potential target for antibiotic therapy could be the use of antibiotics that inhibit protein synthesis. One such target is the 50S ribosomal subunit, which is responsible for peptide bond formation during protein synthesis. Chloramphenicol, for example, is an antibiotic that targets the 50S ribosomal subunit.
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Which of the following statements is consistent with the interaction between Ser 195 and the intermediate? A. Atom OG of Ser 195 is covalently bound to atom CD of GBS, which is an sphybridized carbon. B. Atom OG of Ser 195 is covalently bound to atom CB of GBS, which is an sp hybridized carbon. C. Atom OG of Ser 195 is covalently bound to atom CD of GBS, which is an sp2 hybridized carbon. D. Atom OG of Ser 195 is covalently bound to atom CB of GBS, which is an sp?hybridized carbon
The statement that is consistent with the interaction between Ser 195 and the intermediate is that Atom OG of Ser 195 is covalently bound to atom CB of GBS, which is an sp hybridized carbon.
The answer is B. The enzyme Serine protease catalyzes the hydrolysis of peptide bonds. The active site of the enzyme has a catalytic triad composed of aspartic acid, histidine, and serine. During hydrolysis, the hydroxyl group on the serine residue nucleophilically attacks the carbonyl group of the substrate's peptide bond.
A covalent bond is formed between the Serine hydroxyl and the carbonyl carbon, resulting in an intermediate. A tetrahedral intermediate is created when the carbonyl oxygen of the substrate and the hydroxyl group of Serine are attached.
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Please define the following terms in your own words. Break the terms into their word parts. Then pick three to use in a sentence that you might see on a medical chart or record. 1. Hematocrit (Het) 2. Red blood cell morphology 3. Blood cell transfusion 4. Blood dyscrasia 5. Rigor 6. Reticulocyte count
1. Hematocrit (Het): The term "hematocrit" refers to the proportion of red blood cells in relation to the total volume of blood. It is often represented as a percentage and is an important measure of blood's oxygen-carrying capacity.
2. Red blood cell morphology: This refers to the shape, size, and appearance of red blood cells under a microscope. Evaluating red blood cell morphology can provide valuable insights into various blood disorders and diseases.
3. Blood cell transfusion: It involves the process of transferring blood cells, such as red blood cells, platelets, or white blood cells, from a donor to a recipient to restore blood components or improve the patient's health.
Sentence: "Patient's hematocrit levels are low (Het: 28%) indicating anemia. Red blood cell morphology shows abnormal shapes and sizes, suggesting a possible blood disorder. Patient received a blood cell transfusion to improve oxygen-carrying capacity."
In the given sentence, the terms "hematocrit" and "red blood cell morphology" are used to describe the patient's blood characteristics and potential blood disorder. The sentence also mentions a "blood cell transfusion" as a treatment measure to address the identified issues.
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By intrinsic mechanism of the SV, the strength of contraction is_______________proportional with the _______________ (Starling law) O inversely / peripheral resistance O directly / SV O directly / EDV O Inversely / CO
The intrinsic mechanism of the SV involves the ability of the heart to regulate the strength of contraction based on the Starling law. According to this law, the strength of contraction is directly proportional to the end-diastolic volume (EDV) of the heart.
It means that the more the heart fills up with blood during the diastolic phase, the more forcefully it will contract during systole to eject the blood into the circulation. This relationship is also known as the Frank-Starling mechanism and is critical for maintaining cardiac output in response to changes in preload.The intrinsic mechanism of the SV can also be influenced by other factors, such as heart rate, sympathetic and parasympathetic tone, and peripheral resistance. \
For example, an increase in peripheral resistance due to vasoconstriction can increase afterload on the heart and reduce cardiac output. Similarly, an increase in sympathetic tone can increase heart rate and contractility, while parasympathetic tone can decrease heart rate and contractility.Thus, while the intrinsic mechanism of the SV is primarily driven by the Frank-Starling mechanism.Overall, the regulation of SV is a complex process that involves the interplay of multiple factors and is critical for maintaining adequate blood flow and tissue perfusion throughout the body.
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Please answer the following question(s): 1. Exonuclease trimming at V(D) joints can result in an unproductive rearrangement. Why? a. It can cause loss of the correct transcriptional reading frame b. It can physically damage the DNA, leading to apoptosis C. It can cause loss of the promoter region, preventing transcription from occurring d. It prevents XRCC4 from associating with DNA Ligase IV, so ligation does not occur
a. Exonuclease trimming at V(D) joints can cause loss of the correct transcriptional reading frame, resulting in an unproductive rearrangement.
During V(D)J recombination, the process by which the immune system generates a diverse repertoire of antigen receptor genes, exonuclease enzymes play a role in trimming the DNA sequences at the junctions between variable (V), diversity (D), and joining (J) gene segments. This trimming is necessary to remove excess nucleotides and create a precise junction between the segments.
However, if exonuclease trimming occurs inappropriately or excessively, it can lead to the loss of the correct reading frame. The reading frame refers to the grouping of nucleotides into codons, which determines the correct sequence of amino acids during protein synthesis. When the reading frame is disrupted, it can result in a non-functional rearrangement that does not produce a functional protein.
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When is conflict said to be sexual? In what way is genomic imprinting an outcome of sexual conflict?
Conflict is said to be sexual when it involves sexual traits that may benefit one sex while harming the other. In this case, the conflict is usually between males and females, as they have different reproductive strategies.
One example of sexual conflict is mate choice, where males may want to mate with as many females as possible, while females may be selective and only mate with the best males.Genomic imprinting is an outcome of sexual conflict as it results from the differing interests of the maternal and paternal genomes in offspring development. Genomic imprinting occurs when only one allele from either the mother or the father is expressed, leading to differences in gene expression depending on the parent of origin. This process is thought to result from the evolutionary battle between the sexes, where females may benefit from limiting the resources invested in male offspring, while males may benefit from overproducing sperm and mating with as many females as possible. Thus, genomic imprinting can be seen as a way of resolving sexual conflict and ensuring that offspring receive the optimal combination of genes from their parents.
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ERSONALIZED, INTERACTIVE QUESTIONS H DIGITAL.WWNORTON.COM/ESSANTHRO4 Does the traditional/gradistic or evolutionary/cladistic scheme more accurately represent the similarities and differences between all members of the order Primates? HINT See Table 6.2.
Q4. Discuss the ways in which evolutionary forces might operate to produce the huge amount of anatomical and behavioral diversity seen in the order Primates today. How does such diversity reflect the adaptability and evolutionary "success" of the order? HINT Consider the ways in which different primates occupy distinct ecological niches.
Q5. As humans, we are obviously accustomed to thinking about most issues from a "people-centric" perspec- tive. Pretend for a moment that you are a chimpanzee, gorilla, howler monkey, tarsier, ring-tailed lemur, or one of the many other nonhuman primate species discussed in this chapter. Which ecological and environmental fac- tors have the greatest potential to affect the evolution- ary future of your species? What types of adaptations might be most beneficial in response to these selective pressures? ADDITIONAL READINGS
Aerts, P. 1998. Vertical jumping in Galago senegalensis: The quest for an obligate mechanical power amplifier. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 353: 1607-1620. O Caldecott, J. and L. Miles, eds. 2005. World Atlas of Great Apes and Their Conservation. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Campbell, C. J., A. Fuentes, K. C. MacKinnon, M. Panger, and S. K. Bearder, eds. 2006. Primates in Perspective. New York: Oxford University Press. Falk, D. 2000. Primate Diversity. New York: Norton. McGraw, W. S. 2010. Primates defined. Pp. 222-242 in C.S. Larsen, ed. A Companion to Biological Anthropology. Chichertor UK Wilo-Blackwell
The evolutionary/cladistic scheme more accurately represents the similarities and differences between all members of the order Primates. The huge amount of anatomical and behavioral diversity seen in primates today is a result of various evolutionary forces operating over time.
This diversity reflects the adaptability and evolutionary success of the order, as different primates have occupied distinct ecological niches.
The traditional/gradistic scheme classifies organisms based on superficial similarities and hierarchies, often emphasizing subjective categorizations. On the other hand, the evolutionary/cladistic scheme is based on phylogenetic relationships and shared derived characteristics, providing a more accurate representation of evolutionary history. Since the order Primates encompasses a wide range of species with diverse anatomical and behavioral traits, the evolutionary/cladistic scheme is better suited to capture and explain the similarities and differences among them.
The huge amount of anatomical and behavioral diversity observed in primates today is a result of evolutionary forces such as natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow. These forces act on the genetic variation within populations, leading to adaptations that enhance survival and reproductive success in specific ecological niches. Different primates have occupied distinct ecological niches, resulting in the evolution of specialized traits and behaviors. For example, primates living in arboreal habitats have adaptations for climbing and grasping, while those inhabiting open grasslands have adaptations for bipedal locomotion.
The adaptability and evolutionary success of the order Primates can be seen in their ability to thrive in various environments and exploit different food resources. This adaptability is reflected in their flexible behavior, cognitive abilities, and social systems. Primates exhibit a range of adaptations to selective pressures such as changes in climate, resource availability, predation, and competition. Traits like increased brain size, grasping hands, and complex social behaviors have allowed primates to occupy diverse niches and persist in different habitats.
In summary, the evolutionary/cladistic scheme accurately represents the similarities and differences among members of the order Primates. The remarkable anatomical and behavioral diversity seen in primates today is a product of evolutionary forces operating over time, reflecting their adaptability and evolutionary success in occupying distinct ecological niches.
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Arthropods have tagma and jointed appendages. Sketch and explain how a typical Hexapod differs from a Crustacean. List at least 5 differences and 2 shared traits along with the overall comparison to body plan organization and unique features.
These differences, both hexapods and crustaceans share the common traits of jointed appendages and an exoskeleton made of chitin. These features are fundamental to the arthropod body plan and play essential roles in their survival and adaptation to diverse environments.
A hexapod refers to an arthropod that belongs to the class Insect, which includes insects such as beetles, butterflies, ants, and flies. On the other
hand, crustaceans belong to the subphylum Crustacea and include animals like crabs, lobsters, shrimp, and barnacles.
While both hexapods and crustaceans are arthropods and share some similarities, they also have several distinct differences in their body plans and characteristics.
Here are five differences and two shared traits between hexapods and crustaceans, along with an overall comparison of their body plan organization and unique features.
Differences:
Number of Legs: Hexapods have six legs, which is evident from their name ("hex" means six).
In contrast, crustaceans typically have more than six legs, with some having eight or even ten legs.
For example, crabs have ten legs, while shrimp and lobsters have eight legs.
Antennae Structure: Hexapods have segmented antennae, usually with many small segments.
In insects, the antennae play a vital role in sensory perception and detecting environmental cues.
Crustaceans, on the other hand, have branched or feathery antennae called antennules and antennae.
These structures are typically longer and more complex compared to hexapods.
Body Segmentation: Hexapods have three main body segments known as tagma: the head, thorax, and abdomen.
The head houses sensory organs and mouthparts, the thorax contains the legs and wings (if present), and the abdomen is responsible for digestion and reproduction.
In crustaceans, the body is divided into two or more tagma. They generally have a cephalothorax, which is a fused head and thorax region, and an abdomen.
Wings: Most hexapods possess wings or wing-like structures that enable them to fly.
Insects are the only arthropods that have evolved the ability to fly actively.
Crustaceans, however, do not possess true wings and are not capable of sustained flight.
Some crustaceans, like fairy shrimps, have small appendages called phyllopod that function as swimming paddles.
Terrestrial vs. Aquatic: Hexapods are primarily terrestrial, meaning they live and thrive on land.
They have adapted to various terrestrial habitats, including forests, deserts, and grasslands.
Crustaceans, on the other hand, are predominantly aquatic, inhabiting marine and freshwater environments.
While some crustaceans can tolerate brief periods out of water, they are generally reliant on an aquatic environment for survival.
Shared Traits:
Jointed Appendages: Both hexapods and crustaceans have jointed appendages, which is a defining characteristic of arthropods.
These appendages, such as legs and mouthparts, provide flexibility and versatility in movement, feeding, and other functions.
Exoskeleton: Hexapods and crustaceans possess an exoskeleton made of chitin, a tough and rigid material.
The exoskeleton provides support, protection, and serves as a site for muscle attachment. However, the exoskeleton in crustaceans tends to be thicker and more heavily calcified compared to that of hexapods.
Overall Comparison:
Hexapods and crustaceans differ in their number of legs, antennae structure, body segmentation, presence of wings, and habitat preferences. Hexapods have six legs, segmented antennae, a three-segmented body, and many insects possess wings.
They are predominantly terrestrial. In contrast, crustaceans have more than six legs, branched or feathery antennae, a cephalothorax and abdomen body plan, and lack true wings. They are primarily aquatic but can tolerate brief periods out of water.
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One
strand of a single DNA helix is labeled red while the other strand
of the same DNA helix is labeled blue. Thus double helix DNA is
replicated through the process of semi-conservative replication.
That is correct. The process of DNA replication is semi-conservative, meaning that each newly synthesized DNA molecule consists of one original (parental) strand and one newly synthesized (daughter) strand. This process ensures the preservation of genetic information during cell division.
During DNA replication, the double helix structure of DNA unwinds, and the two strands separate. Each separated strand then serves as a template for the synthesis of a complementary strand. The enzyme DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the growing daughter strands according to the base-pairing rules (adenine [A] with thymine [T], and cytosine [C] with guanine [G]).
In semi-conservative replication, one strand of the parental DNA serves as a template for the synthesis of a new complementary strand. The resulting DNA molecule consists of one original (red-labeled) strand and one newly synthesized (blue-labeled) strand. This ensures that each daughter DNA molecule carries the same genetic information as the parent molecule.
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It is observed that in the cells of a color-blind male child one Barr-body is present. The child has a maternal grandfather who was also color-blind. The boy's mother and father are phenotypically and karyotypically normal. Provide the sex chromosome genotype of the mother, father, and child to support the genetic attributes of the Barr-body positive child and explain specifically how this could occur. Hint: Assume X chromosome inactivation occurs after the development of the retina and therefore is NOT involved the phenotype of color-blindness. Also, remember colorblindness is a recessive trait.
In this scenario, the child is a male and is color-blind, indicating that he inherited the color-blindness trait from his mother. The presence of one Barr body in the cells of the color-blind male child suggests that he has an extra X chromosome (XXY), a condition known as Klinefelter syndrome.
Based on the information provided, let's determine the sex chromosome genotypes of the mother, father, and child:
Child:
Phenotype: Color-blind male
Genotype: XXY (Klinefelter syndrome)
Mother:
Phenotype: Phenotypically and karyotypically normal
Genotype: Carrier of the color-blindness allele (XcX)
Father:
Phenotype: Phenotypically and karyotypically normal
Genotype: XY
The mother is a carrier of the color-blindness allele (XcX) because her maternal grandfather was color-blind. Since color-blindness is a recessive trait carried on the X chromosome, the mother inherited the X chromosome carrying the color-blindness allele from her father (Xc) and a normal X chromosome from her mother (X).
During fertilization, the mother can pass on either her X chromosome carrying the color-blindness allele (Xc) or her normal X chromosome (X) to her child. In this case, the mother passed on her X chromosome carrying the color-blindness allele (Xc) to her son. Therefore, the child inherited the color-blindness trait and the extra X chromosome (XXY) responsible for Klinefelter syndrome.
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What are the differences between innate and adaptive immunity?
Describe with examples
Innate immunity and adaptive immunity are two types of immunity. They are both critical for the proper functioning of the immune system. Here are the differences between innate and adaptive immunity:Innate Immunity:Innate immunity is a type of immunity that is non-specific, meaning it responds to a broad range of pathogens. Innate immunity is the first line of defense against invading pathogens. It involves various physical, chemical, and cellular defenses that provide a general response to a pathogen.The following are some examples of innate immunity:Inflammation: Tissue damage triggers the inflammatory response, which helps to protect the body by eliminating damaged tissue and invading microorganisms.Phagocytosis: White blood cells called phagocytes ingest and destroy invading microorganisms that enter the body.Natural killer cells: These are cells that are responsible for detecting and destroying abnormal cells, such as cancer cells.Adaptive Immunity:Adaptive immunity is a type of immunity that is specific, meaning it targets a particular pathogen. Adaptive immunity is a type of immunity that is only activated when the body is exposed to a particular pathogen.
The following are some examples of adaptive immunity:Humoral immunity: Antibodies are produced by B cells in response to a specific antigen. These antibodies circulate in the bloodstream and bind to the pathogen, marking it for destruction by other immune cells.Cell-mediated immunity: Certain types of T cells respond to specific antigens. These cells either destroy infected cells directly or help other immune cells attack the infected cells.
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For a population where red is the dominant flower color, white is the recessive flower and pink is the heterzygote phenotype. Red flowers= 487 individuals, white= 965 individuals pink=767 individuals
1) Could this population be in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?
2) Which phenotype appears to have a selective advantage in the provided population? Provide a potential driver for this advantage.
The population provided is not in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium due to the unequal frequencies of the phenotypes. The red phenotype appears to have a selective advantage in the population, possibly driven by factors such as pollinator preference or environmental conditions.
For a population to be in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, certain conditions must be met, including random mating, no migration, no mutations, large population size, and no selection. In the given population, the frequencies of the red, white, and pink phenotypes are significantly different, indicating a departure from equilibrium. The red phenotype is the most prevalent, followed by pink and white. This indicates that there is a deviation from the expected genotype frequencies under Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.
The selective advantage in this population appears to be favoring the red phenotype. This advantage could be driven by various factors. One potential driver could be pollinator preference. If the pollinators in the environment have a preference for red flowers, they would be more likely to visit and transfer pollen to red flowers, leading to increased reproductive success for the red phenotype. Another possibility is that the red phenotype is better adapted to the environmental conditions, such as higher tolerance to certain abiotic factors or enhanced resistance to pests or diseases. These factors could provide a selective advantage to the red phenotype, leading to its higher frequency in the population.
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3. How is convergent evolution different from divergent evolution? Provide an example of each in your answer.
Convergent evolution and divergent evolution are two important concepts in evolutionary biology. Convergent evolution is when unrelated organisms develop similar traits due to similar environmental pressures.
Divergent evolution is when two or more species with a common ancestor develop different traits due to different environmental pressures.Example of Convergent Evolution:One classic example of convergent evolution is the wings of bats and birds. Bats are mammals and birds are birds, yet they both have wings.
They did not inherit wings from a common ancestor, but instead, evolved them separately because of the shared need to fly.Example of Divergent Evolution:The finches of the Galapagos Islands are a classic example of divergent evolution. The different finch species all evolved from a common ancestor, but each species has different traits that help it survive in its particular environment. Some have developed larger beaks for cracking hard seeds while others have smaller beaks for catching insects. The different environments on each island caused different pressures and led to the development of different traits.
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Why is it suggested that humans in public wear a mask (surgical or N-95)… considering that we are in Spring 2022 now with a surge (increased spread of virus by infected numbers) in the Omicron variants)?
As of Spring 2022, there is an increased spread of the Omicron variant of the COVID-19 virus. It is suggested that humans wear masks in public to prevent the spread of the virus.
Masks have been shown to be an effective way to reduce the transmission of respiratory viruses such as COVID-19. The virus is primarily spread through respiratory droplets that are produced when an infected person talks, coughs, or sneezes. Wearing a mask can prevent these droplets from spreading to others and can also prevent an individual from inhaling the droplets themselves. Wearing a mask in public can help reduce the spread of the virus, especially in areas where there are high numbers of infected individuals.
The Omicron variant is more infectious than previous variants, making it even more important to wear a mask to prevent the spread of the virus.Wearing a surgical or N-95 mask is recommended because they provide a higher level of filtration compared to cloth masks. Surgical masks are designed to protect both the wearer and those around them. They are made from a multi-layered material that filters out small particles, including respiratory droplets. N-95 masks provide even more protection as they filter out at least 95% of airborne particles. However, N-95 masks should be reserved for healthcare workers and individuals who are at a higher risk of exposure to the virus.
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What is the difference berween short hairpin RNAs and microRNAs. How are they synthesized? Mention the chemical modifications of DNA antisense oligonucleotides. Explain how phosphothionate oligonucleotides lead to the degradation mRNAs associated to diseases. How is antisense RNA naturally produced? Explain the action mechanism of the drug Nusinersen. Mention how SMN1 and SMN2 genes regulate Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA) and how Nusinersen affects the synthesis of normal SMN protein. Explain the RNA interference (RNAi) pathway. Mention how this pathway can target the degradation of a specific mRNA. Explain the action mechanism of the drug Patisiran on transthyretin TTR)-mediated amyloidosis (hATTR). Provide with an explanation for he reduction in the synthesis of abnormal TTR proteins caused by atisiran.
Short hairpin RNAs and microRNAs:Short hairpin RNAs and microRNAs are small RNA molecules that function in the RNA interference (RNAi) pathway to regulate gene expression.
Both have similar roles in the pathway, but there are differences in their structure, synthesis, and function. Short hairpin RNAs (shRNAs) are synthesized as long RNA precursors, which are processed by the enzyme Dicer to produce small, double-stranded RNAs that are incorporated into the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC).MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are transcribed from genes in the genome, which are processed by the enzymes Drosha and Dicer to produce small, single-stranded RNAs that are also incorporated into the RISC. The main difference between shRNAs and miRNAs is that shRNAs are synthesized artificially in the laboratory, while miRNAs are naturally occurring molecules in the cell.Chemical modifications of DNA antisense oligonucleotides:The chemical modifications of DNA antisense oligonucleotides are designed to improve their stability, binding affinity, and delivery to target cells. The most common modifications are phosphorothioate (PS) linkages, which replace one of the non-bridging oxygen atoms in the phosphate backbone with sulfur. This modification increases the stability of the oligonucleotide to nuclease degradation, which is important for their effectiveness in vivo.Phosphothionate oligonucleotides lead to the degradation mRNAs associated with diseases by binding to complementary mRNA sequences and recruiting cellular machinery to degrade the target mRNA. The antisense RNA molecules naturally produced in the cell are synthesized by transcription from genes in the genome. These RNAs can have regulatory roles in gene expression by binding to complementary mRNA sequences and interfering with translation.
The action mechanism of the drug Nusinersen: Nusinersen is a drug that targets the SMN2 gene, which produces a splicing variant of the SMN protein that is missing exon 7 and is less stable than the full-length protein. Nusinersen is a splice-modifying oligonucleotide that binds to a specific site on the SMN2 pre-mRNA and promotes the inclusion of exon 7, leading to the synthesis of more full-length SMN protein. This results in an increase in SMN protein levels, which can improve the symptoms of Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA).SMN1 and SMN2 genes regulate Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA):Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA) is caused by a deficiency in the survival motor neuron (SMN) protein, which is encoded by the SMN1 gene. Humans also have a nearly identical SMN2 gene, which produces a splicing variant of the SMN protein that is missing exon 7 and is less stable than the full-length protein. Nusinersen affects the synthesis of normal SMN protein by promoting the inclusion of exon 7 in the SMN2 pre-mRNA, leading to the synthesis of more full-length SMN protein.RNA interference (RNAi) pathway:The RNA interference (RNAi) pathway is a cellular mechanism for regulating gene expression by degrading specific mRNA molecules. This pathway involves small RNA molecules, such as microRNAs (miRNAs) and small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), which are incorporated into the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC). The RISC complex binds to complementary mRNA sequences and cleaves the mRNA molecule, leading to its degradation.The action mechanism of the drug Patisiran:Patisiran is a drug that targets transthyretin-mediated amyloidosis (hATTR), a disease caused by the accumulation of abnormal transthyretin (TTR) protein in tissues. Patisiran is an RNAi therapeutic that targets the mRNA molecule that encodes TTR protein. The drug is delivered to target cells using lipid nanoparticles, which protect the RNAi molecules from degradation and enhance their delivery to the liver. Once inside the cell, the RNAi molecules bind to complementary sequences in the TTR mRNA molecule and promote its degradation, leading to a reduction in the synthesis of abnormal TTR proteins. This can slow the progression of hATTR and improve patient outcomes.
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Describe the mechanisms responsible for exchange of substances
across the capillary wall. Outline the roles of hydrostatic and
colloid osmotic forces in controlling fluid filtration; indicate
approxim
The capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in the body, measuring about 100 µm in diameter. They connect the arterial and venous circulations. The walls of the capillaries are composed of only one endothelial cell layer that is thin enough to allow for the exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and metabolic waste products between the blood and tissues.
The mechanisms responsible for exchange of substances across the capillary wall are as follows:
Diffusion: Substances like oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nutrients diffuse down their concentration gradients between the capillary lumen and the interstitial fluid.
Filtration: Fluid is forced through pores in the capillary wall by hydrostatic pressure (the force of fluid against the capillary wall) created by the heart's pumping action.
Reabsorption: Fluid is drawn back into the capillary by osmotic pressure exerted by the higher concentration of plasma proteins (colloid osmotic pressure).
The roles of hydrostatic and colloid osmotic forces in controlling fluid filtration can be outlined as follows:
Hydrostatic pressure: Fluid filtration is driven by hydrostatic pressure, which is the force of fluid against the capillary wall. This pressure is caused by the pumping action of the heart. It forces water and solutes through the capillary pores into the interstitial fluid.
Colloid osmotic pressure: This is the osmotic pressure exerted by the plasma proteins, such as albumin. The concentration of these proteins in the plasma is higher than in the interstitial fluid. This difference in concentration results in a force that draws fluid back into the capillary. Approximately 90% of the fluid that leaves the capillary is reabsorbed.
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Which of the following is the best example of cellular tolerance? a. Tolerance in the environment where the organism took the drug, but not in other environments. b. The upregulation (increased function) of liver enzymes that break down the drug. c. A reduction in the number of receptors on which the drug is acting. d. The downregulation (decreased function) of liver enzymes that break down the drug.
Cellular tolerance is a reduction in the response of cells to a specific stimulus following repeated or prolonged exposure to that stimulus. Receptor number, binding affinity, and/or intracellular transduction mechanisms may all be involved.
Cellular tolerance, like behavioral tolerance, can have a range of mechanisms, one of which is drug metabolism. The best example of cellular tolerance is the downregulation of liver enzymes that break down the drug. Answer: The best example of cellular tolerance is the downregulation (decreased function) of liver enzymes that break down the drug. This is because cellular tolerance is a reduction in the response of cells to a specific stimulus following repeated or prolonged exposure to that stimulus.
In this case, the repeated exposure of liver enzymes to a drug leads to the downregulation of the enzymes which reduces their function, thus resulting in a decreased response of the cells to the drug.
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Designing vaccines to elicit drugs?
Could we somehow create a vaccine to have the immune system target and attack cocaine molecules once they are present in us?
Designing vaccines to melanoma cancer?
Could we somehow create a vaccine to have the immune system target and attack molecules only found on cancer cells like melanoma?
What challenges might you face with attempting to elicit an effective immune response to the melanoma cancer?
What other signals are missing to ACTIVATE this T helper cell? Why or why not?
What benefits do you see in this system of shutting off cells that are stick to things that are NOT associated with PAMP detection?
B cells:
What is the function of a B cell once active?
What is required for B cell activation?
Explain the process based on your understanding?
What is the difference between a B cell’s antigen receptor and its antibodies?
B cells require T helper cell help (binding) for full activation. But which helper cell?
How does your immune system use antibodies?
In other words, what are the functions of antibodies?
What is the difference between passive and active immunity?
Vaccines for cocaine or melanoma are tough to develop. Vaccines that stimulate an immune response to specific chemicals are theoretically possible, but several hurdles exist.
Specificity: A cocaine or melanoma vaccination must identify certain indications or antigens. Target-specific antigens are hard to find.Vaccines target T and B cells. Cancer cells hide or suppress the immune system, making cancer vaccines hard to activate.Tumour Heterogeneity: Melanoma is heterogeneous. This heterogeneity makes melanoma vaccines difficult to design.Immunological tolerance preserves healthy cells and tissues. Overcoming immunological resistance and ensuring the vaccine-induced immune response targets only the desired molecules or cells without injuring normal tissues is tough.
T helpers activate B cells. B cell antigens trigger CD4+ T helper cells to generate antibodies.
B-cells produce antibodies. BCRs detect antigens. Antigen binding to the BCR activates B cells to divide and develop into plasma cells. Plasma cells produce many antigen-specific antibodies.
BCR antigen recognition and other cues activate B cells. Helper T cells deliver signals via BCR-bound antigen-T cell receptor interactions and co-stimulatory molecules.
Antibodies—immunoglobulins—perform immune system functions. Pathogen binding prevents cell infection. Antibodies mark pathogens for macrophages and natural killer cells. Antibodies activate the complement system, which fights pathogens.
Passive and active immunity acquire immune responses differently. Active immunity is a person's immune response to an antigen from sickness or vaccination. Immune response memory cells protect against infections.
Exogenous antibodies or immune cells provide passive immunity. Placental or breast milk antibodies can cause this. Immune globulins and monoclonal antibodies can artificially acquire it. Transferred antibodies or cells give immediate but short-term passive immunity.
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Describe the key characteristics of oncogene and tumour suppressor gene mutation, and how these characteristics impact on the strategies used to target cells with these mutations.
Oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes are two types of genes commonly associated with cancer development. Mutations in these genes play a critical role in the initiation and progression of tumors.
Oncogene Mutations:
Characteristics: Oncogenes are altered forms of normal genes (proto-oncogenes) that regulate cell growth and division. Oncogene mutations result in the overactivation or amplification of their protein products, promoting uncontrolled cell proliferation.
Impact on Targeting Strategies: Targeting cells with oncogene mutations often involves developing therapies that directly inhibit or downregulate the activity of the oncogene or its protein product. Examples include targeted therapies like tyrosine kinase inhibitors or monoclonal antibodies that specifically block the activity of oncogenic proteins.
Tumor Suppressor Gene Mutations:
Characteristics: Tumor suppressor genes normally regulate cell growth, inhibit cell division, promote DNA repair, and induce cell death (apoptosis). Mutations in tumor suppressor genes result in loss-of-function or reduced activity, allowing uncontrolled cell growth and tumor formation.
Impact on Targeting Strategies: Targeting cells with tumor suppressor gene mutations often involves strategies aimed at restoring or enhancing the functions of these genes. This can be achieved through gene therapy approaches, such as introducing functional copies of the tumor suppressor gene into cancer cells.
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You have discovered a new species of parrotfish, and are
studying it to write up a scientific paper about it. Which of the
following observations that you have made are part of the animal’s
niche?
Observations that are part of the animal's niche are its feeding behavior, the coral reef environment where it lives, and its interactions with other species. Parrotfish has been found in various reef environments, from patch reefs to outer barrier reefs, in the Indian and Pacific Oceans.
Some of them graze on coral, whereas others feed on different substrates. Many parrotfish species are crucial to the structure of the reef ecosystem because they keep the reef clean by ingesting and grinding algae on the reef. They also help to change coral reef geomorphology by feeding on dead corals, breaking them up, and excreting them as fine white sand. They play a vital role in the reef ecosystem because of these activities. the observations about the species' feeding behavior, the coral reef environment in which it lives, and its interactions with other species are part of the animal's niche. It's important to note that a niche is a term used in ecology to describe the role or function that a species plays in a particular ecosystem. It includes the type of food the animal eats, its habitat, and its interactions with other species. Therefore, these are essential observations to include in a scientific paper on the new species of parrotfish.
as a researcher, you would need to document all of the animal's observed characteristics and behaviors, as well as any other factors that could influence its survival and well-being. A scientific paper should answer more than 100 words and provide a detailed explanation of the species.
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which of these most accurately describes why birds are more efficient at breathing?
a) air sacs more completely ventilate the lungs
b) air sacs pre-warm the air
c) air sacs act as extra lungs
d) air sacs are used to hold more air
The most accurate description for why birds are more efficient at breathing is option a) air sacs more completely ventilate the lungs.
Birds have a unique respiratory system that includes a network of air sacs connected to their lungs. These air sacs play a crucial role in enhancing the efficiency of their breathing process. Unlike mammals, birds have a unidirectional airflow system that allows for a constant supply of fresh oxygen-rich air.The air sacs act as bellows, expanding and contracting to ventilate the lungs more completely. This means that both inhalation and exhalation involve the movement of air through the lungs, ensuring efficient gas exchange. The continuous flow of air facilitated by the air sacs maximizes oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide release.While options b) and c) also describe certain functions of the air sacs, they are not as comprehensive in explaining the overall efficiency of bird respiration. Option d) is not accurate, as air sacs do not primarily serve the purpose of holding more air but rather aid in the ventilation process.
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Which of the following statements accurately characterize Volkmann's ischemic contracture? (Choose all that apply) In cases of supracondylar fracture of the humerus, Volkmann's ischemic contracture re
Volkmann's ischemic contracture is a condition that can occur as a result of prolonged or severe ischemia (lack of blood supply) to the muscles and tissues of the forearm. It is typically associated with a supracondylar fracture of the humerus, which is a fracture that occurs just above the elbow joint.
The following statements accurately characterize Volkmann's ischemic contracture:
It is characterized by muscle necrosis: Prolonged ischemia can lead to tissue damage and muscle necrosis, which is the death of muscle cells.
It can result in permanent muscle contracture: The muscle damage and scarring caused by Volkmann's ischemic contracture can lead to a permanent shortening and tightening of the affected muscles, resulting in a contracture.
Itis associated with compartment syndrome: Volkmann's ischemic contracture is often preceded by compartment syndrome, which is a condition where increased pressure within a muscle compartment impairs blood flow to the muscles and tissues.
It can cause functional impairment: The contracture and scarring of the muscles can result in limited range of motion and functional impairment of the affected limb.
Early recognition and treatment are important: Prompt medical intervention, including relieving pressure, restoring blood flow, and surgical intervention if necessary, is crucial to prevent or minimize the development of Volkmann's ischemic contracture.
It's important to note that while the above statements accurately characterize Volkmann's ischemic contracture, a comprehensive understanding of the condition would require further study and consultation with medical professionals.
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Which of the following is not a type of G protein coupled receptor used in hormone signaling? adenylate cyclase phospholipase C integrin
Integrin is not a type of G protein coupled receptor used in hormone signaling. Integrins are a family of cell surface receptors that are important for cell-to-cell and cell-to-extracellular matrix (ECM) interactions.
Integrins are not G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) because they do not contain seven transmembrane helices. Integrins are composed of an alpha and a beta subunit, each of which has a large extracellular domain and a single transmembrane domain. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are a large family of proteins that are involved in hormone signaling. They are seven transmembrane domain proteins that are activated by a variety of extracellular stimuli, including hormones, neurotransmitters, and light.
The activation of GPCRs results in the activation of G proteins, which in turn activate intracellular signaling cascades that regulate a variety of cellular functions. There are two main signaling pathways that are activated by GPCRs: the adenylate cyclase pathway and the phospholipase C pathway. In the adenylate cyclase pathway, the activation of GPCRs results in the activation of the G protein Gs, which stimulates the production of cyclic AMP (cAMP) by adenylate cyclase. In the phospholipase C pathway, the activation of GPCRs results in the activation of the G protein Gq, which stimulates the production of inositol triphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG) by phospholipase C.
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Your assignment is to find microbes from soil that are
resistant
to the antibiotic kanamycin. Briefly describe a primary screen
strategy for
this purpose. BE SPECIFIC.
Kanamycin is an antibiotic widely used in biotechnology for the selection of recombinant plasmids carrying a kanamycin resistance gene.
However, overuse and misuse of this antibiotic in human and animal medicine has led to the emergence of kanamycin-resistant bacteria. Therefore, finding soil microbes resistant to kanamycin is essential for developing new antibiotics. A primary screen strategy for finding microbes resistant to kanamycin from soil can be conducted in the following steps:
Step 1: Soil sampling - Collect soil samples from different regions that have different climate and vegetation.
Step 2: Soil pretreatment - Heat-treat the soil samples at 80 °C for 30 minutes to kill any non-spore forming bacteria.
Step 3: Enrichment culture - Incubate the soil samples in an enriched medium containing kanamycin as the sole carbon source for a week. This step is to allow only bacteria that have the kanamycin resistance gene to grow and proliferate.
Step 4: Dilution plating - After a week, dilute the soil samples and plate them on agar media containing kanamycin. This step is to identify the presence of bacteria that can grow on the kanamycin-containing media, indicating that they are kanamycin-resistant.
Step 5: Isolation of the microbes - Pick individual kanamycin-resistant colonies, streak them on fresh kanamycin-containing plates to obtain pure cultures, and identify them by using molecular biology techniques such as PCR or DNA sequencing. The primary screen strategy can be used to identify soil microbes resistant to kanamycin.
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_____________ lacks a defined primary structure and is not considered a polysaccharide. a. Hemicellulose b. Cellulose c. Lignin d. Pectin
Lignin is a complex polymer found in the cell walls of plants. The correct answer is option c.
It provides structural support to the plant and is responsible for the rigidity of plant tissues. Unlike polysaccharides such as hemicellulose, cellulose, and pectin, lignin does not have a defined primary structure. It is composed of an irregular network of phenolic compounds, making it a unique and complex molecule.
Lignin is not considered a polysaccharide because it does not consist of repeating sugar units like other carbohydrates. Instead, it is a heterogeneous polymer that contributes to the strength and durability of plant cell walls.
The correct answer is option c.
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During the metabolism of ethyl alcohol, electrons are transferred from the alcohol to a NAD molecule (forming NADH and acetaldehyde) by enzyme 1; the acetaldehyde donates another pair of electrons to another NAD+ molecule to form acetic acid or acetate (more correct since it won’t be protonated at physiological pH) (catalyzed by enzyme 2). The acetic acid is then added onto a CoA molecule by enzyme 3, forming a thioester bond and the product molecule is known as Acetyl-CoA which enters normal metabolism. What types of reactions (oxidoreductase, hydrolase, transferase, etc.) are carried out by enzymes 1, 2, and 3, respectively?
During the metabolism of ethyl alcohol, electrons are transferred from the alcohol to a NAD molecule (forming NADH and acetaldehyde) by enzyme 1; the acetaldehyde donates another pair of electrons to another NAD+ molecule to form acetic acid or acetate (more correct since it won’t be protonated at physiological pH) (catalyzed by enzyme 2).
The acetic acid is then added onto a CoA molecule by enzyme 3, forming a thioester bond and the product molecule is known as Acetyl-CoA which enters normal metabolism. The types of reactions carried out by enzymes 1, 2, and 3, respectively are as follows:
Enzyme 1 catalyzes the oxidation-reduction reaction (also known as the redox reaction) of the ethyl alcohol. Enzyme 1 is an oxidoreductase.
Enzyme 2 catalyzes the conversion of acetaldehyde to acetic acid.
Enzyme 2 is a hydrolase.
Enzyme 3 catalyzes the addition of acetic acid to CoA to form Acetyl-CoA. Enzyme 3 is a transferase.
The entire process of ethyl alcohol metabolism can be described in three steps as mentioned above. In the first step, the oxidation-reduction reaction takes place, converting ethyl alcohol to acetaldehyde and NAD+ to NADH.
The second step is the conversion of acetaldehyde to acetic acid, and in the third step, acetic acid is added to CoA to form Acetyl-CoA, which enters the normal metabolism.
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Prokaryotes are identified according to their shape (e.g.
spheres, rods, and spirilla) and gram staining (i.e. positive or
negative).
Select one:
True
False
True Prokaryotes, which include bacteria and archaea, can be identified based on their shape and gram staining.
The shape of prokaryotic cells can vary and is typically classified into three main types: cocci (spherical), bacilli (rod-shaped), and spirilla (spiral-shaped). This shape classification helps in distinguishing different prokaryotic species.
Gram staining is a technique used to differentiate bacteria based on their cell wall composition. It involves staining bacterial cells with crystal violet dye, followed by the application of iodine, alcohol, and a counterstain such as safranin. The reaction of the cell wall to this staining procedure helps in categorizing bacteria as either gram-positive or gram-negative.
Therefore, prokaryotes can be identified based on their shape and gram staining results, making the statement "Prokaryotes are identified according to their shape and gram staining" true. These characteristics play a significant role in microbial classification and contribute to our understanding of prokaryotic diversity.
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In a test cross with the following pea plant (RR Ss), where genes show independent assortment: a. What is the expected frequency of Rr progeny? b. What is the expected frequency of progeny that are HOMOZYGOUS for BOTH the genes?
(a) In a test cross with the following pea plant (RR Ss), where genes show independent assortment: The expected frequency of Rr progeny is 0.5 or 50%.
(b) In a test cross with the following pea plant (RR Ss), where genes show independent assortment: The expected frequency of progeny that are homozygous for both genes (RR SS) is 1 or 100%.
(a) The expected frequency of Rr progeny can be determined by multiplying the probabilities of getting an R allele and an r allele. Since the plant is RR for the first gene, it can only pass on an R allele, resulting in a 100% chance of transmitting the R allele.
However, for the second gene, the plant is heterozygous (Ss), so it has a 50% chance of transmitting the s allele. Therefore, the expected frequency of Rr progeny is 0.5 or 50%.
(b) To calculate the expected frequency of progeny that are homozygous for both genes (RR SS), we need to multiply the probabilities of obtaining the dominant alleles for both genes. Since the plant is RR for the first gene, it can only pass on an R allele, resulting in a 100% chance of transmitting the R allele.
Similarly, since the plant is SS for the second gene, it can only pass on an S allele, resulting in a 100% chance of transmitting the S allele. Therefore, the expected frequency of progeny that are homozygous for both genes (RR SS) is 1 or 100%.
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