The Xist transgene (Tg) integrated into the autosome can induce transcriptional silencing of neighboring genes. However, the effects and mechanisms of Xist RNA on autosomal sequence silencing remain elusive.
Xist or Tsix heterozygous mutations cause non-random X chromosome inactivation in female cells. When the expression of Xist increases from the X chromosome in cells before X chromosome inactivation, the X chromosome always becomes XI, and wild-type X always becomes XA. Xist encodes an RNA molecule that plays an important role in selecting the X chromosome to remain active, and the early spread and establishment of silencing on the inactive X chromosome allows the XIST RNA to enter interphase non-active cells. We smear the active X chromosome as evidence for the involvement of new RNAs. Nuclear/chromosomal structure. Inactivation of the X inactivation. chromosome is mediated by stabilization of the Xist RNA. Stabilization of Xist RNA mediates initiation of X inactivation.
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In population genetics, for a locus with two alleles, we use the variable q to indicate.
For a location with two alleles, the frequency of the recessive allele is represented by the variable q in population genetics.
Why does population genetics matter?We have the chance to take a step back and see how genetic change has changed over time thanks to population genetics. We can start to see how outside forces might spark the development of a trait by comparing populations to one another (and to themselves).
On what does population genetics primarily focus?Group genetics' main objective is to provide an explanation for behavioral variations among members of a given population. Increased understanding of the genetic and environmental factors that contribute to these disparities is a goal of behavior geneticists.
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When scientists and doctors are looking to heal wounds and cure diseases, stem cells are a great option because they can repair damage and grow new specialized cells. From the list, which type of stem cell would be the best option for healing the widest variety of diseases?.
The crude element scientists and doctors were looking from which our body tries to make all the other cells with specialized type of functions are called embryonic stem-cells. Option (A).
They have the ability to provide many varieties of bin the body. In infection or any injury, they may be very useful as they displace the useless and broken cells. Embryonic stem cells are discovered withinside the internal middle of the human embryo.
They are withinside the undifferentiated shape which means they could deliver upward push to any sort of mobileular and its progenitors. ESC are pluripotent this is they've complete ability to change into the 3 number one germ layers. They may be the first-rate choice for recuperation the widest kind of sicknesses as they could regenerate and restore broken tissues and organs. Therefore, Embryonic stem cells are the first-rate choice for recuperation the widest kind of sicknesses.
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Correct Question:
When scientists and doctors are looking to heal wounds and cure diseases, stem cells are a great option because they can repair damage and grow new specialized cells. From the list, which type of stem cell would be the best option for healing the widest variety of diseases?
a). embryonic stem cells
b). small intestine stem cells
c). bone marrow stem cells
d). skin stem cells
a typical operon contains several regions. in which region does a regulator protein bind? group of answer choices
A typical operon contains several regions but in the operator, the region a regulator protein bind. Thus the correct answer is option (A).
An operon is a collection of genes with similar functions that are managed by a single shared operator. Operons are made up of several genes arranged in a group with a promoter and an operator. Operons are not found in eukaryotes but are found in prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea). When more than one operon is regulated by the same regulatory protein, the operons collectively make up a regulon. Operons were initially recognized by François Jacob and Jacques Monod in 1961 as a way of controlling gene expression.
Operons are areas of DNA that have collections of related gene clusters. Between the promoter and the genes or inside the promoter is where the operator can be found. For transcription RNA polymerase binds to the promoter region. The operator's position is crucial because it affects whether or not genes can be transcribed into mRNA.
The complete question is:
A typical operon contains several regions. in which region does a regulator protein bind? group of answer choices
(A) Operator
(B) Structural genes
(C) Promoter
(D) Splice site
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the pid-5 is basically an extreme, negative version of the big five. it consists of what five traits?
The five traits of PID-5 are negative affectivity, detachment, antagonism, disinhibition, psychoticism.
A series of eight Five-Factor Model Personality Disorder (FFMPD) scales were developed to assess, from the perspective of the Five-Factor Model (FFM), the maladaptive traits included in the DSM-5 Personality Disorders Section II. Impaired personality functioning (Criterion A) and the presence of pathological personality traits are characteristics of PD (Criterion B). The PID-5's length, although its well-established reliability and validity, may restrict its usage in clinical practice and research. Relationships between PID-5 traits and other clinically relevant constructs for personality disorders have also been studied. For example, PID-5 traits have been linked general interpersonal impairment and dysfunctional beliefs. It was discovered that animosity and abnormal behavior were related. Overall, these results support the hypothesis that personality traits are associated with the Big Five model.
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Some slow-growing trees have leaves that are high in lignin. The most likely advantage of lignin to such trees is that lignin
a. has a low C:N ratio, and thus it enriches the soil in its immediate vicinity.
b. kills certain microorganisms that are needed for plants with high growth rates, protecting the trees from competitive exclusion.
c. has high concentrations of phosphorus, which is necessary for slow-growing trees.
d. slows the rate of decomposition, thereby lowering the fertility of the soil and allowing the trees to outcompete plants with high growth rates.
e. Both a and b
Reduces pace of decomposition, which lowers soil's fertility and gives trees advantage over plants with rapid growth. Along with cellulose and hemicellulose, lignin is one of primary elements of trees.
Lignin gives trees their stiffness and also makes them water resistant and deterioration resistant. It makes up around 30% of the dry mass of wood. Lignin is a by-product of the paper industry, which is primarily concerned in removing the cellulose from the wood, in the present industrial procedures. The paper turns yellow after being exposed to the sun due to lignin. Because paper pulps are difficult to handle as environmentally damaging, lignin is extracted from them using chlorinated products. Lignin may also provide a distinct vanilla flavor to paper.
Large amounts of lignin are left over after the paper-making process, and the majority of it is now burnt to provide heat or utilized in other industrial uses like agriculture or building. Chemically speaking, lignin is a polymer with a structure that enables it to replace uses derived from petroleum, such as fenol. Its main benefit is that it is much more environmentally friendly than products made from petroleum, as the growth of trees absorbs [tex]Co_{2}[/tex] rather than emitting it.
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a fisherman catches and removes one trout from each of two ponds. pond a contains 100 trout and pond b contains 1,000 trout. which population is more affected by the fisherman
Small populations are more severely affected by genetic drift, which causes the random loss of certain alleles and the setting of others. By picking a fish from the smaller population in Pond A, the fisherman has a better chance of totally eliminating alleles from the gene pool.
How does genetic drift work?Genetic drift is an evolutionary mechanism that causes the allelic frequencies in a population to change over many generations. In a small population, its effects are more challenging to discern.
What impact does gene flow have on the genetic diversity of a population?Gene flow within a community has the potential to promote genetic diversity, but gene flow between populations with different genetic make-ups has the potential to reduce genetic diversity.
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Question:
a fisherman catches one trout from each of two ponds. pond a contains 100 trout and pond b contains 1,000 trout. which population is more affected by the fisherman? group of answer choices pond b; the fisherman is more likely to catch a fish that is undergoing evolution in a bigger population. pond a; fewer fish are able to move into a small pond and find mates. pond b; the process of evolution occurs more slowly in large populations and removing a fish speeds up the process. pond a; the fisherman has a greater likelihood of completely removing alleles from the gene pool by taking a fish from the smaller population.
what effect does contraction of the diaphragm have on intra-alveolar pressure? multiple choice question.
The thoracic cavity expands and the diaphragm contracts during inspiration. As a result, the interalveolar pressure is reduced, allowing air to enter the lungs.
Mechanism of ventilation:
Air is moved through the conducting passages between the atmosphere and the lungs during ventilation, also known as breathing. Due to pressure gradients created by the diaphragm and thoracic muscles contracting, air flows through the passages.Pulmonary ventilation:
Breathing is the general name for pulmonary ventilation. The act of air entering the lungs during inspiration (inhalation) and exiting the lungs during expiration is known as it (exhalation). Pressure differences between the atmosphere and the gases in the lungs cause air to flow.As a result of these three pressures, the lungs are ventilated:
Inspiration
The act of bringing air into the lungs is known as inspiration (inhalation). As a result of the contraction of muscles, it is the active phase of breathing. The thoracic cavity expands and the diaphragm contracts during inspiration. As a result, the interalveolar pressure is reduced, allowing air to enter the lungs. The breath of inspiration fills the lungs.
Expiration
The act of releasing air from the lungs during the breathing cycle is known as expiration (exhalation). The diaphragm relaxing and tissue recoiling elastically cause the thoracic volume to decrease and the interalveolar pressure to rise during expiration. The act of exhaling forces air out of the lungs.
Hence, the interalveolar pressure is reduced, allowing air to enter the lungs.
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Remnant of a supernova event; Similar to a large atomic nucleus
PLS HELP do tomorrow
A. White Dwarf
B. Neutron Star
A neutron star results from the transformation of a supernova, and is basically composed of neutrons. B) Neutron Star is a remnant of a supernova event.
What is a neutron star?Giant stars follow different stages along their cycles.
Their stages are as follows,
Nebula, Protostar,Main sequence (yellow supergiant, red supergiant)SupernovaNeutron star
When red supergiants run out of fuel and can not grow anymore, they collapse. After the explosion, a supernova originates.
Neutron stars are the stellar remnant that remains after the supernova goes through different changes. These are small stars, but bigger than the sun characterized for having an unknown density of neutrons. They are the densest and brightest objects known in the universe.
Neutron Star are remnant of a supernova event; Similar to a large atomic nucleus. Option B).
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observation: yellow colonies found at 25c and not yellow colonies at 37c. using the layout of an operon (promoter, operator, and genes), describe how transcription would be regulated at 25c.
The lac operon is a single-promoter operon, or collection of genes (transcribed as a single mRNA).
This opens up the lac operon promoter for binding by RNA polymerase and transcription. Beta-galactosidase, which is produced by the lacZ gene, catalyzes the breakdown of lactose into galactose and glucose. The DNA-binding transcription factor known as "Lactose inhibitor," or Lac I, represses translation of the operon involved in the transport and degradation of lactose. Constitutive genes are those whose expression is uncontrolled. The lac repressor, which is downstream of a promoter & upstream of the regulatory start site, binds to the RNA at this location, known as the operator, to prevent the lac operon from being expressed in the absent of lactose.
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How can a Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram be used to show the evolution of a star?
What is the process where bone is continually broken
down and continually made?
A remodeling
B reduction
C fracturing
D ossification
Which of the following pairs is mismatched?
a) Motor neuron - efferent neuron
b) Ganglion - knot like mass of the nerve cell bodies
c) Sensory neuron - afferent neuron
d) Somatic nerves - serve the eyes and ears
Somatic nerves don't serve the eyes and ears.
A subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that penetrates almost every part of the body is the somatic nervous system. This nervous system is involved in conscious activities and has nerves that travel to the skin and muscles. This helps with the regulation of the body's movements under voluntary control via the use of skeletal muscles.
Therefore, option d is incorrect. Because the nerves that serve the eyes are optic nerves and the ears are the auditory nerves.
A motor neuron is also referred to as an efferent neuron. A sensory neuron is also referred to as an afferent neuron. Ganglions are clusters of neuronal bodies that form part of the peripheral nervous system.
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Where are the metacarpals found?
A) ribs
B) hand
C) skull
D) foot
Answer:
B. Hand
Explanation:
*winks and runs off*
a biopsy is a procedure in which a sample of cells is taken from the body and analyzed. if you were performing the analysis, what features would indicate to you that the patient has cancer? select all that apply.
The correct options are:
d). Cells undergo more mitosis than usual.
e). Cells divide even when there are no growth factor signals.
A biopsy can be done to look for abnormalities due to more mitosis than usual, which can be structural or functional, such as kidney or liver issues or swelling in a specific organ. A specific ailment can be diagnosed if aberrant cells are seen when the tissue sample is inspected under a microscope.
A biopsy can also be performed to evaluate the grade and severity of an illness that has already been diagnosed, such as the level of inflammation (such as the aggressiveness of cancer).
The complete question is:
A biopsy is a procedure in which a sample of cells is taken from the body and analyzed. If you were performing the analysis, what features would indicate to you that the patient has cancer? Select all that apply.
a. Cells are sending out signals for new blood vessels to grow.
b. Cells have contact inhibition.
c. Cells lack telomerase activity.
d. Cells undergo more mitosis than usual.
e. Cells divide even when there are no growth factor signals.
f. cells express high levels of tumor suppressor genes.
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a virus mutates, and therefore it has which of the following traits of living things?(1 point) responses it uses energy. it uses energy. it is made of cells. it is made of cells. it evolves. it evolves. it grows and develops.
A virus that mutates represents the characteristic of living things that is evolution. Unicellular organisms have a cell membrane made of a lipid bilayer, whereas viruses have a protein coat. This is the main distinction between viruses and unicellular organisms.
When a virus replicates, its genes make sporadic "copying errors" (i.e. genetic mutations). These genetic copying errors may also alter the virus' surface proteins or antigens in addition to other alterations that have occurred to the virus throughout time. A process called mutation can result in a virus's genetic makeup (DNA or RNA) changing irreversibly. A mutation could happen if the virus's DNA or RNA is copied incorrectly. Though this is not always the case, some viruses exhibit incredibly high rates of mutation. RNA viruses often have high mutation rates, but DNA viruses frequently have modest mutation rates. Our immune system uses these antigens to recognize and fight viruses.
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plaque buildup causes the inside of the arteries to narrow over time, which could partially or totally block the blood flow. this process is called .
The process that causes the inside of the arteries to narrow over time, is called as Atherosclerosis.
Plaques can purpose an artery to grow to be narrowed or blocked. If a plaque ruptures, a blood clot can form. Plaques and blood clots can lessen blood float thru an artery. Coronary artery ailment begins offevolved while fats, cholesterols and different materials acquire at the internal partitions of the coronary heart arteries.
Atherosclerosis is a not unusualplace circumstance that develops while a sticky substance known as plaque builds up inner your arteries. Disease connected to atherosclerosis is the main purpose of demise withinside the United States. About 1/2 of of Americans among a while forty five and eighty four have atherosclerosis and do not know it.
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what makes the visible light microspectrophotometer a useful tool with which to analyze fibers the pyrolysis products generated are used to chemically identify polymer type.
A microspectrophotometer that combines a microscope and a spectrophotometer is an effective tool for analyzing the pyrolysis-derived fibres.
In the forensic examination of numerous types of trace evidence, the visible microspectrophotometer is a very helpful tool. In order to record the light absorption characteristics of a very small sample, it combines a microscope with a spectrophotometer. microspectrophotometer is a very helpful tool.
Without reacting with oxygen or any other oxidants, pyrolysis is the heat breakdown of a solid (or a liquid) into smaller volatile molecules. The majority of solid fuels require pyrolysis in order to burn. As temperature rises, pyrolysis proceeds more quickly. The substance that is subjected to pyrolysis undergoes a chemical transformation.
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among the typical midlife changes for men are a(n) . a. loss of body fat b. increase in testosterone production c. increase in prostate size d. increase in bone density e. increase in urinary flow
Among the typical midlife changes for men is an Increase in prostate size.
A portion of the fluid that carries sperm during ejaculation is produced by the prostate, a gland. The urethra, which is the tube through which urine leaves the body, is surrounded by the prostate gland.
As you get older, your chances of having an enlarged prostate go up. Because BPH is so common, it has been said that if a man lives long enough, he will all have an enlarged prostate. Many men over 40 have a small amount of prostate enlargement. The condition affects more than 90% of men over the age of 80.
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Neurexins are cell adhesion proteins that are important for connecting neurons at the synapse. Mammals have 3 neurexin genes. However, 2000 forms of neurexin proteins are found in cells where they play a role in determining synapse specificity. What mechanism most likely underlies this diversity?.
The mechanism that most likely underlies the diversity observed where 3 neurexin genes are used to make about 2000 forms of neurexin proteins found in cells is gene splicing.
What are genes?Genes are specific regions of DNA in a living organism that codes for a particular protein or gene product.
The products of a gene are synthesized from the gene through the process of transcription and translation.
In the process of transcription, the nucleotide sequence of the gene is used to synthesize mRNA.
The mRNA synthesized from the gene is then used by the ribosomes to make proteins in the process called translation.
Multiple gene products or proteins can be synthesized from a single as a result of a process known as gene splicing.
Gene splicing is a post-transcriptional modification that occurs in the mRNA molecule that has been produced from the such that different regions of the
are added or removed to produce new mRNA molecules that are then used to make proteins.
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Why do scientists think Earth's core contains iron?
Answer: B. The crust does not contain much iron
Explanation:
Option A is wrong because Iron is not lighter than the oxygen
Option C is wrong because iron does conduct electricity so answer B is correct!
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in a cloning experiment, you use a vector that contains a lacz gene near the unique restriction site. if the competent cells are grown on x-gal and iptg, which colonies would contain a gene of interest?
In a cloning experiment, one uses a vector that contains a lacZ gene near the unique restriction site. The white colonies would contain chromosomal DNA if the competent cells are grown on x-gal and IPTG.
The LacZ gene is in charge of making the beta-galactosidase enzyme. The mRNA fragment responsible for the manufacture of -galactosidase is encoded by the lacZ gene. Galactose and glucose are produced as a result of the enzyme's action on lactose.
While IPTG, or isopropyl beta-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside, causes the transcription of genes from the lac as well as tac operons in bacteria, X-Gal, or 5-Bromo-4-Chloro-3-Indolyl-beta-D-Galactoside, is a chromogenic substrate for the beta-galactosidase enzyme that produces a blue precipitate on hydrolysis.
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A homozygous blue eye person is crossed with a homozygous brown eye person what are genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring?
All the offspring produced from this cross will have the same phenotype which is brown eyes and the genotype will be heterozygous (Bb).
What is a genetic cross?Genetic crosses are made using Punnett squares to show how likely the offspring are to inherit the characteristics from their parents.
In the given question, a homozygous blue eye person with the genotype bb is crossed with a homozygous brown eye person with the genotype BB. Therefore, the genotype and phenotype of the offspring produced can be shown through Punnett square.
The allele B (brown eye) is dominant over the allele b (blue eye). Therefore, all the offspring produced will have brown eyes with the heterozygous genotype i.e., Bb.
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During the energy investment phase of glycolysis, glucose undergoes chemical reactions to become.
A total of 2 ATP is produced during the glycolysis process, which converts glucose into pyruvate and energy (Glucose + 2 NAD+ + 2 ADP + 2 Pi —> 2 Pyruvate + 2 NADH + 2 H+ + 2 ATP + 2 H2O).
Nearly all sorts of organisms have evolved a metabolic process and anaerobic energy source called glycolysis. The Embden-Meyerhof pathway is another name for the process, given in honour of the key figures in its discovery and comprehension. [1] It serves a purpose in anaerobic respiration because it doesn't need oxygen, but it is also the initial stage in cellular respiration. Molecules of glucose, the most important organic fuel for plants, microorganisms, and animals, are oxidised during the process. a majority of cells favour glucose (although there are exceptions, such as acetic acid bacteria that prefer ethanol). Per glucose molecule, glycolysis uses up 2 ATP molecules and generates 4 ATP, 2 NADH, and 2 pyruvates.
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over time with several attempts of passaging, the donor strain used in this laboratory exercise fails to successfully induce mutagenesis in the recipient strain and eventually becomes diffcult to culture. based on your understanding of how the prl27 plasmid behaves in the donor strain, why do these things eventually occur?
Option (b) The donar will always possesses defective mismatch kind of repair mechanism, which allowing mutations to gradually try to accumulate.
Mutational inactivation of each copies of a DNA mismatch restore gene effects in a profound restore illness and revolutionary accumulation of mutations all through the genome. The DNA mismatch restore device is a bidirectional excision-resynthesis device this is initiated at a described strand scission this is 3′- or 5′- of a mismatch and this excision will tract extends to any nonspecific factor simply beyond the mismatch.
(MIS-healthy reh-PAYR deh-FIH-shun-see) Describes cells which have mutations (changes) in sure genes which can be worried in correcting errors made while DNA is copied in a cell. Mismatch restore (MMR) poor cells normally have many DNA mutations, which may also cause cancer.
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Correct Question:
Over time with several attempts of passaging, the Donor strain used in this laboratory exercise fails to successfully induce mutagensis in the Recicpient strain and eventually becomes difficult to culture. Based on your understanding of how the PRL27 plasmid behaves in the Donor strain, why do these things eventually occur?
a). The transpson is active in the donor, and mutations gradually accumulate due to continued activity.
b). The donor possesses defective mismatch repair mechanisms, allowing mutations to gradually accumulate.
c). The plasmid eventually integrates into the donor chromosome.
d). Pl protein slowly accumulates through time, resulting in overproduction of the plasmid.
Calculate the number of oxygen atoms in a sample of scheelite. Be sure your answer has a unit symbol if necessary, and round it to significant digits
167.77 x 10²¹ molecules of scheelite contains 4 x 167.77 x 10²¹ atoms of oxygen .
Scheelite is a calcium tungstate mineral with the chemical formula CaWO4. It is an important ore of tungsten .They have developed commercial value in the 20th century when tungsten is widely used in alloy steels and electric light filaments.
Scheelite consists of a broad range of colors, from bright orange, golden yellow, yellow-brown, brownish green to dark brown, pinkish to reddish gray, white or can be even colorless. Transparent varieties are notably difficult to prepare as gemstones because of their fragility.
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Which postulate of natural selection is deliberately enforced by dog breeders using artificial selection?.
Dog breeders actively assert that reproduction and survival are not influenced by chance by using artificial selection.
Advantage in reproduction biological selection?The mechanism of evolution known as reproductive advantage modifies the population's heritable features. Natural selection, according to the theory of evolution, is the process through which a species' phenotype—its outwardly manifested genetic traits—can change over time.
Why is reproductive success critical to the process of natural selection?Long life is not favored by natural selection unless it allows for or resulting in increased reproductive success. Similar to this, even though we might wish it were the case, there isn't necessarily a premium placed on intelligence, physical prowess, or beauty unless these qualities actually result into more offspring than normal.
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Some glucose produced by gluconeogenesis is stored in the body as glycogen. Order the steps of glycogen synthesis. Not all description accurately describe glycogen synthesis; therefore, not all the descriptions will be used. Pyrophosphates converts PPi and water into Pi. Glycogen synthase adds a glucose unit from UDP-glucose to glycogen, producing a a larger glycogen molecule and UDP. Glycogen synthase removes a glucose unit from a glycogen molecule producing a smaller glycogen molecule and UDP. ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase catalyzes the reaction of glucose-1-phoshate and ATP to ADP-glucose and PPi. UDP-glucose-1-phosphate and and UTP to UDP-glucose and PPi.
Glycogenesis is the technique of conversion of glucose into glycogen. It is the metabolic technique wherein glucose produced is transformed into glycogen that is then saved in liver.
This technique is just like the technique of glycolysis in which the pyruvate formation occurs.
Step: 1
Initially Glucose-6-phosphate into Glucose-1-phosphate via way of means of the movement of an enzyme hexokinase. Now Glucose-1-phosphate is then transformed to the UDP-glucose via way of means of the movement of an enzyme of Uridyl Transferase or UDP-glucose pyro phosphorylase.
Step: 2
The pyrophosphate that is fashioned is then hydrolyzed via way of means of the movement of pyrophosphatase. The enzyme Glycogen synthase provides a glucose unit to the UDP-glucose via way of means of the formation of the glycosidic bond to shape the polysaccharide glycogen. This response similarly proceeds to shape longer chain of glycogen molecule. From the pyrophosphate institution the phosphate institution is eliminated via way of means of the movement of enzyme after which the glycogen phosphorylase converts the UDP-glucose into glycogen.
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What catalyzes DNA synthesis?
DNA polymerase
Answer:
catalysts
Explanation:
i wouldnt explain
How are skin cells damaged by exposure to ultra-violet radiation?
A. Too many new cells are produced.
B. The skin cells produced split too easily.
C. Skin cell DNA is broken up and the DNA molecules do not repair properly.
D. RNA is not reproduced and the skin cells are incomplete.
PLSS i have a 84 in this class :P
The manner in which skin cells are damaged by exposure to ultra-violet radiation is as follows: skin cell DNA is broken up and the DNA molecules do not repair properly (option C).
What is Ultraviolet radiation?Ultraviolet radiation is a form of non-ionizing radiation emitted by the sun and other artificial sources.
Ideally, ultraviolet is a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelength from 10 nm to 400 nm, shorter than that of visible light, but longer than X-rays.
Exposure to UV rays can cause premature aging of the skin and signs of sun damage such as wrinkles, leathery skin, liver spots, actinic keratosis, and solar elastosis.
Therefore, UV radiation causes the DNA in the cells of skin to break down beyond repair.
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When microbes enter through a minor skin wound, resident ______ in the tissues destroy them. If these microbes are not rapidly cleared, the resident cells secrete _______ to recruit _______ for extra help.macrophages; cytokines; neutrophils
When microbes enter through a minor skin wound, resident macrophages in the tissues may destroy them. If these microbes are not cleared, the resident cells secrete cytokines to recruit neutrophils for extra help.
Numerous cell-surface receptors on neutrophils and macrophages enable pathogen recognition and engulfment. Among them are receptors that recognize patterns, like TLRs. Infection from a wound results from harmful microbes that live and multiply there. Infections at the site of a wound hinder and occasionally stop the healing process.
The microbes that infect wounds the most frequently are bacteria, and it is typical for a wound to have multiple bacterial infections. Coryneform bacteria, hemolytic streptococci, and S. aureus are the most prevalent primary skin pathogens. Usually, a skin break, such as an insect bite, allows these organisms to enter.
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