Dr. Estes treats patients with sexually deviant behavior. He uses extinction and aversive conditioning to help eliminate inappropriate behaviors and acquire or reinforce appropriate behaviors. He also helps them develop social skills.
What is aversive conditioning?Aversive therapy, sometimes called aversive therapy or aversive conditioning, helps people abandon behaviors and habits by associating them with something unpleasant. Avoidance therapy is best known for treating people with addictive behaviors such as those found in alcohol use disorders.In fact, an event can be disgusting or appetizing for the same person in different situations and at different times. Examples of aversive stimuli include: Proximity to others, loud noises, bright lights, extreme cold or heat, social interaction.What is extinction behavior?In psychology, extinction refers to the decline and disappearance of behaviors previously learned through association with another event. This means that the conditioned response weakens and the target's behavior eventually stops and disappears.
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which of the following is an accurate comparison of g. stanley hall's theory of adolescence and the studies done by daniel offer and his colleagues?
Offer and his colleagues discovered that, in contrast to Hall, teenagers were generally happy.
In his book Adolescence, published in 1904, psychologist G. Stanley Hall used the words "storm and stress" to characterize the decreased levels of self-control and increasing levels of sensitivity displayed by adolescents.
Learn more about the significance of storm and stress, the connections between biology and adolescence and the effect of Hall's work, as well as the interconnections between psychology and adolescence.
According to Hall, the puberty-related biochemical changes are somewhat to blame for this turbulent and stressful time. Growing bodies require some time to adjust to coping with these biological changes.
Many mood swings that occur can be attributed to hormonal changes. Adolescents may feel awkward or uneasy during this time because of their physical development.
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true or false? the federal agency charged with the responsibility of administering the provisions of the osh act is niosh. a. true b. false
False, the federal agency charged with the responsibility of administering the provisions of the OSH act is not NIOSH.
What is federal ?The Federal Reserve was established by the Federal Reserve Act in 1913 to act as the country's central bank. The Washington, D.C. Board of Governors is a federal and congressional agency with direct accountability to them.The Federal Reserve System was created on December 23, 1913, when President Woodrow Wilson enacted the Federal Reserve Act. Commonwealth or federal states or state examples are Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Canada, Germany, India, Iraq, Malaysia, Mexico, Micronesia, Nepal, Nigeria, Pakistan, Russia, Switzerland, UAE, and United States. The Federal Reserve System, simply "Fed," is the central bank of the United States. It was created by Congress to provide the country with a more secure, flexible and stable monetary and financial system.To learn more about federal from the given link :
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Bobby throws a ball as hard as he can. It comes back to him, even though nothing and nobody touches it. How?.
The ball is hurled as far as Bobby can. Despite the fact that nothing and nobody touches it, it returns to him. He launches it directly upward.
How is the word despite used?However, because although, in spite of, and regardless are all used to demonstrate how one fact makes another fact surprising or to connect two opposing notions. All of these may be applied at the start or middle of a sentence. We took pleasure in the festival despite the rain. Despite the weather, we had a great time at the festival.
Does the word despite mean even so?Despite and in front of both function the same way in a sentence, notwithstanding whatever you may have heard. Contrary as what you've heard, these two prepositions are essentially equivalent. Both terms typically refer to "despite," "even though," or "regardless of."
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the 2014 ruling by the united states court of appeals for the d.c. circuit that struck down the fcc's open internet order had what effect at that time?
The FCC's open internet order had an effect of ending network neutrality requirements for ISPs.
What is a circuit?
A circuit in electronics is a complete circular path through which electricity flows. A basic circuit is made up of a current source, conductors, and a load. The term circuit can be used broadly to refer to any fixed path through which electricity, data, or a signal can travel.
An electrical circuit is made up of a power source, two wires that can carry electric current, and a light bulb. One end of each wire is connected to a cell terminal, while the other ends are connected to a light bulb. When the light bulb is turned off, the electrical circuit is broken.
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why is an understanding of behavioral and psychological principles important for a successful interrogation?
The main psychological element that affects that whether interview or interrogation is effective is privacy.
A psychological mind is what?The systematized totality of an organism's subjective & psychic processes and the structure and function cognitive components such as which they depend. This term is used to refer to all intellectual and psychological anomalies of an organism, including motivational, affective, psychosocial, perceptual, and cognitive systems.
What does life imply psychologically?A successful life is a concept in positive psychology that has to do with the meaning, fulfillment, etc satisfaction of one's life. A universal schema to explain one's existence and the conviction that experience itself is significant are two features that are shared by all theories, regardless of their specifics.
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Time of establishing personal & economic independence, career development, selecting amate, learning to live with someone in an intimate way, starting a family & rearing children.A. AdolescenceC. Middle AdulthoodB. Early AdulthoodD. Late Adulthoodindomontal skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic are
Time of establishing personal & economic independence, career development, selecting a mate, learning to live with someone in an intimate way, starting a family & rearing children is called Middle Adulthood.
What is Middle Adulthood?
In this stage of life has as many facets as any other. It is a time of negotiation and renegotiation between the physical, psychological, and social dimensions of human existence. First, we will discover how to maintain, safeguard, and advance physical health throughout middle life. One of the sources of our feeling of self and self-worth, as well as the foundation of our identity and how we view ourselves, may be our bodies. Who do you see when you look in the mirror, figuratively speaking? The psychological component of that shift comes in second. Does the person resent, accept, or tackle the problems that come up at this stage of life? Mindfulness and having a positive attitude influence how people perceive change. Thirdly, social support and participation in society are
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how does mccarthyism, the bystander effect, or mob mentality connect to the crucible by arthur miller?
The Salem Witch Trials were used as an allegory in "The Crucible" to examine the dread and hysteria that permeated American society during Red Scare and the Communism era.
What distinguishes communism from capitalism?The government owns the production factors in a communist society. Production inside a capitalist economy is governed by free market factors like supply and demand. The government controls which commodities and services are produced and the amount that is accessible at any given time in a communist economy.
What does being placed on a McCarthy-era blacklist entail?The boycott included the practice of refusing employment to individuals in the entertainment business who were allegedly Communists or their sympathizers in the past or present. American actors, screenwriters, filmmakers, musicians, and other performers
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after three months of riding the 8:30 bus to work, cindy has started to feel affection for the gruff and scowling old bus driver. cindy's reaction best illustrates
The familiarity effect, also known as the mere exposure effect, happens when someone starts to appreciate and feel tender toward something they are used to or familiar with.
Is sensitivity a sign of pain?
Tenderness in medicine refers to pain or discomfort experienced when a sick area is touched. It shouldn't be mixed up with pain that a patient feels but doesn't touch. Patient perception of pain is different from a clinician's ability to elicit tenderness.
What causes tenderness?
A indication of inflammation or other acute processes in one or more organs is typically abdominal soreness. The delicate region is surrounded by the organs. Acute processes are those brought on by sudden pressure. Point tenderness, for instance, can be brought on by twisted or obstructed organs.
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the majority of crashes are caused by . a) environmental factors b) vehicle equipment problems c) pedestrians d) driver errors
The majority of crashes are caused by Driver Errors.
Hence, option D is correct.
What do you mean by accidents caused by Driver error?
Accident can be defined as an unforeseen and unplanned event or circumstance. Driver error is a major factor which contributes to around 94 percent of traffic accidents. There are around four categories of driver error including recognition, decision, performance, and nonperformance mistakes.The driver error can occur due to many reasons including
DistractionsReckless drivingDriving under the influenceFatigueHence, By going through the above case we can conclude that option D is correct.
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the treatment model advocated by alcoholics anonymous is an example of a approach. a) behavioral b) cognitive c) psychodynamic d) sociocultural
An illustration of an approach cognitive model is the treatment program promoted by Alcoholics Anonymous.
What sort of cognitive model would that be?
For instance, the "levels of processing" theory proposed by Craik and Lockhart in 1972 offers a conceptual framework for memory, whereas mathematical cognitive models of memory include the REM model by Shiffrin and Steyvers from 1997 or the TODAM model by Murdock from 1993.
The cognitive model is crucial, so why?
Understanding which interconnected cognitive processes result in the observed behavioral output is made easier with the use of cognitive models. By mimicking various active cognitive processes, cognitive models can accomplish the same task as human participants.
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Which male character appears in the upper right box during the opening credits of the brady bunch?.
Mike Roger Peter In the right upper box during The Brady Bunch's opening credits, Bobby can be seen.
Are all the members of The Brady Bunch still alive?Stars of "Brady Bunch" memorialize Florence Henderson in reunion that is very Brady. The four of them are the last living relatives of the Bbc family, together with their two on-screen relatives Maurice Mcdonald (Hefner) and Eve Plumb (Jan). Robert Reed, who portrayed Dad, died around 1992, and Ann B. Davis, who played Alice, died in 2014.
Why did The Brady Bunch cause a stir?Despite all the Bradys' good-natured antics, there were drug problems, close cast connections, secret sexuality, and plot disagreements off-screen. Sherwood Schwartz conceived and produced The Brady Bunch, which aired on ABC from September 1969 to March 1974.
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joshua, an 8-year-old boy, has been diagnosed with conduct disorder. he has been undergoing therapy for the past few months. joshua's psychologist has advised his parents to reward him whenever he is obedient and does what has been asked of him. this technique is most likely to be part of
Giving a reward whenever a child with conduct disorder is displaying obedience and did exactly what was asked is a technique that is a part of behavior therapy.
In the field of psychology, a conduct disorder in children is defined as children who are displaying a repetitive pattern of negative behaviors which are not considered common or normal behaviors among children. Examples of a conduct disorder are bullying, physical aggression, lying, cruelty towards living beings, obsession with fire and setting things on fire, etc.
Conduct disorder have underlying issues stemming from abandonment, mental health issues, stress and depression, abuse, and many other factors. One therapy that proves to be beneficial in reducing the occurrence of the disorder would be of a behavior therapy in which by giving a reward whenever the child is showing obedience or any other positive behavior thus reinforcing the positivity and altering the tendency of the children from showing negative behaviors and actions.
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frameworks institute conducts in-depth interview research about social and scientific issues. which question is best suited for an in-depth interview approach?
The best question suited for an in-depth interview approach is What motivates people to participate in rallies?
How are depth interviews in research carried out?Developing a sample strategy, drafting an in-depth interview guide, performing the interviews, and reviewing the data are the four phases in conducting an in-depth interview.
In-depth interviews are used in what kind of research?An open-ended, discovery-focused technique for getting in-depth knowledge about a subject from a stakeholder is an in-depth interview. The purpose of in-depth interviews, a qualitative research technique, is to thoroughly examine a respondent's perspective, experiences, feelings, and perspectives.
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the manipulation of task and relationship behaviors in accordance with follower readiness can facilitate growth and development among followers. this statement belongs to which situational theory?
Follower growth and development can be aided by manipulating task and relationship activities in accord with follower preparedness. This claim is in line with the Hersey and Blanchard theory.
Hersey and Blanchard's developed any of the following theories?According to this strategy, the leader must modify their leadership style according to their followers' staged and cycled readiness.. As a result, this idea is sometimes referred to as the leadership life-cycle theory.
What does Blanchard Situational Theory aim to achieve?The competence and willingness of specific employees are the emphasis of the Hersey-Blanchard Model, a leadership approach. Alternatively, the Situational Leadership is another name for it. The model presents four leadership philosophies, each of which corresponds to a different stage of employee growth.
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Sylvia is a wonderful ice skater. But every ice skater is a person. Therefore, Sylvia is a wonderful person.
A) Amphiboly.
B) Composition.
C) Equivocation.
D) Division.
E) No fallacy.
The answer to the question is E, and Sylvia is a fantastic ice skater. However, every skater is a human being. Sylvia is a beautiful person as a result.
Who knows what became of the Russian skater?
Valieva, a 15-year-old sensation who had only recently joined the senior circuit, tested positive for a prohibited cardiac drug on December 25, which was discovered during the team competition. Russia came in first, followed by the United States in second and Japan in third.
Why did a Russian skater get to skate?
The two main justifications given by the CAS judgment for permitting Valieva to skate are that she is a minor, and depending on the infraction, minors are subject to reduced sanctions due of their age.
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what internal conflict does bromden seem to be experiencing, and how does it affect his storytelling?
The storyteller uses character and conflict that the audience is very familiar with.
How does a writer create an individualistic storytelling experience?To engage their audience with the story, the storyteller must use elements that are likely to be immediately recognizable by the listeners. The audience's attention will be captured in this manner, allowing them to mentally visualize and follow the story using images from their own experience. This is the best way to describe how a writer can create a unique storytelling experience. Authors who want to do so frequently create main characters who battle internal conflicts. These conflicts are frequently complex, leading to crises for the characters. The emphasis in this type of writing is frequently on deeply examining the complexities of the human mind.To find story arcs, go to the internet and start reading, then try to fit some of your fantasies into an arc. Create exciting and compelling roles in which you are involved in someone whose story you want to tell.Leave out the specifics. Nobody needs to read about a moralist personality who gets lucky. Create very flawed characters to whom bad things appear and tell the story of how they overwhelm.To learn more about storytelling refer to:
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true or false? in contrast to the constitutions of most european states, there is no right to privacy in the u.s. constitution.
That is correct. In contrary to the constitutions among most European countries, there is no privacy right in the United States.
A constitution is the collection of core rules or established precedents that serve as the legal foundation of a polity, organization, or other form of body and typically dictate how that entity is to be managed. When these ideas are enshrined in a single document or group of legal papers, the documents are said to embody a constitution; when they are enshrined in a single complete document, the document is said to contain a codified constitution. The United Kingdom's Constitution is an example of an unwritten constitution; it is written in various basic Acts of a parliament, court cases, or treaties.
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gary and billy live in different parts of the world, so when they are apart they are relatively autonomous, but when they visit each other they are inseparable. what strategy are they using to manage dialectical tensions?
They are using alternation to manage dialectical tensions. In this method, the partners alternately focus on their tensions.
"Dialectics" is a philosophical argumentation approach that entails a few sort of conflicting process among different sides.
Denial, incoordination, alternation, fragmentation, alignment, integration, recalibration, and reassertion are all strategies for dealing with dialectical tensions. Alternation can be an effective method of dealing with relational dialectics tensions.
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_____ is the extent to which doing the job provides information back to the employee about his or her performance.
The amount of information an employee receives regarding her or her performance as a result of doing their work is known as feedback.
What exactly does feedback mean?
Helpful advice or feedback that is offered to someone to point out improvements that can be made to a performance, a product, etc. To make its products better, the business incorporates consumer feedback.
What is a feedback type?
Feedback can be given orally, in writing, informally, formally, as well as being descriptive, evaluative, peer- and self-assessed. The importance of the feedback is its caliber. Appreciation, mentoring, and evaluation are the three types of feedback.
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what is the name of the work that comes from the tradition claiming it was done by 72 elders and completed in 70 days?
Seventy souls went down to Egypt to begin the Hebrews' Egyptian exile (Genesis 46:27). The Sanhedrin was an assembly of seventy-two elders appointed to sit as a tribunal in every city in the ancient Land of Israel.
What does the Sanhedrin mean in the Bible?After the Second Temple was destroyed, the Sanhedrin, an assembly of either twenty-three or seventy-one elders known as "rabbis," was established to serve as a tribunal in every city in the ancient Land (Hebrew and Aramaic: ; Greek: v, synedrion, "sitting together," therefore "assembly" or "council").
Exist Jewish Sanhedrins today?The Sanhedrin was the final institution to have total authority over all Jews, according to Jewish history dating back to Moses and continuing up to the present. There hasn't been a single body recognized as the norm for Jewish law since it was dissolved in 358.
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which of the following must be reported to the defense counterintelligence and security agency and the fbi by contractors under the national industrial security program?
Of the following the ones that must be reported to the defense counterintelligence and security agency and the FBI by cleared contractors under the national industrial security program is all of the above. (Option D)
The National Industrial Security Program (NISP) is the nominal authority in the United States which is responsible for managing the requirement of private industry to access classified information. It ensures that the cleared U.S. defense industry protects the classified information in their possession when working on contracts, programs, bids, or research and development efforts. It requires cleared contractors must report actual, probable, or possible espionage, sabotage, terrorism, or subversion promptly to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and Defense Counterintelligence and Security Agency (DCSA).
Note: The question is incomplete as it is missing options which are A) Probable espionage, B) sabotage, C) terrorism, D) All of the above.
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Two people learned nonsense syllables and then tried to recall them after up to eighthours had elapsed. Jenkins and Dallenbach observed that forgetting occurred leastrapidly when the individuals spent their timeA)physically exercising.B)playing a card game.C)watching television.D)sleeping.
Two participants were taught nonsensical syllables and then attempted to recall them up to eight hours later. When people were asleep, forgetting happened the least quickly, according to Jenkins and Dallenbach. The right response in this case is option D.
The connections between neurons weaken each night when you sleep in order to minimize or get rid of memories you don't need, such as what you had for breakfast last week and what you wore yesterday. By selectively removing synapses over the night, you are able to create new memories the following day.
Scientists have repeatedly examined this notion over the past century and have frequently discovered that sleep increases memory retention and recall by between 20 and 40%.
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if a person displays psychotic symptoms for at least one month but less than six months, the dsm-5 diagnosis would be
If a person displays psychotic symptoms for at least one month but less than six months, the DSM 5 diagnosis would be schizophreniform disorder, which suggests that option A is the right answer.
Schizophrenia is a psychological disorder in which the person tends to perceive the real events in a abnormally different way and creates their own world of illusion around them. They are generally treated by medications if detected within time. The general changes which are visible in such patients are delusions, hallucinations, unusual physical behavior, and disorganized thinking and speech. These areas are observed in DSM 5 analysis. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders is the full form of DSM 5.
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To refer to complete question, see below:
If a person displays psychotic symptoms for at least one month but less than six months, the DSM-5 diagnosis would be
A. schizophreniform disorder.
B. autism spectrum disorder.
C. grossly disorganized disorder.
D. schizophrenia.
Research shows that ____________ is positively linked with self-esteem and life satisfaction.
According to research, emotional intelligence is positively correlated with life satisfaction and self-esteem.
What does "self-esteem" mean to you?It is based on our self-perceptions, which might be difficult to change. This might also be called confidence. Since poor self-esteem typically emerges in infancy, changing the behavior might be difficult. Both how to behave around other folks and how to view oneself must be thoroughly relearned.
What leads to low self-esteem?Criticism from dad or other influential people like teachers during a difficult childhood. Low academic accomplishment at school causes low self-confidence in the face of ongoing stressful life circumstances, including a bad marriage or financial difficulties.
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the leading cause of fatal work-related injuries is: a. transportation incidents. b. falls. c. assaults and violent acts. d. being struck with an object.
Option a is correct. Transportation Incidents Account for 40% of All Workplace Fatalities in the U.S
What is a transportation disaster?A transport accident is any accident (or incident) that happens throughout any kind of transportation, such as accidents taking place throughout street transport, rail transport, marine transport and air transport.
Transportation systems additionally create hazards. Accelerated motion comes with risks, and the corresponding accidents that occur disrupt lives and transportation structures daily. Vehicles collide, trains derail, boats capsize, and airplanes crash often enough to preserve emergency managers and news journalists busy.
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https://brainly.com/question/1071443#SPJ4according to sternberg, an individual scoring very high on the scholastic aptitude test (sat) is demonstrating. t/f
The statement ' according to Sternberg, an individual scoring very high on the scholastic aptitude test (sat) is demonstrating componential intelligence' is true.
The scholastic aptitude test (SAT) can be described as a test that is taken in order to determine the basic skills such as reading abilities, writing abilities, and statistical skills in a person.
Componential intelligence is the type of intelligence that builds the IQ in a person. A person who has scored very high in the scholastic aptitude test (SAT) will known to be have a higher IQ and thus will be representing a componential intelligence according to the renowned psychologist, Stenberg.
Abstract thinking, written skills, mathematical skills, etc all come under componential intelligence.
The question will correctly be written as:
According to Sternberg, an individual scoring very high on the scholastic aptitude test (SAT) is demonstrating componential intelligence. True or False
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Please- I'm terrible at essays, and I wasn't there to take the notes-
Did imperialism in Africa have more positive or negative effects? Support your answer with details you learned from this unit.
Answer:
Imperialism in Africa had far more negative effects than positive effects. Colonialism, ethnic division, and military occupation by western Europeans led to the widespread destruction of native natural resources, urbanization of previously nomadic peoples, and the spread of foreign diseases. For example, the establishment of salt mines in Kenya and Tanzania by Europeans forced many natives into a situation that was essentially a euphemism for slavery; they had terrible working conditions, and extremely low pay in rations. Unfortunately, mines were just one example of worker and land exploitation. Many more existed in the form of plantations, where Africa was used as a low-cost exporter of raw materials and "cash crops" to Europe. And even more brutality of this system is apparent with the fact that the people who worked these mines and plantations rarely got the final processed goods in return.
which theory assumes people are intrinsically driven to attain fulfillment and psychological growth? multiple choice mcclelland’s acquired needs theory maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory herzberg’s two factor theory deci and ryan’s self-determination theory
Desi and Ryan's self-determination theory postulates that people are intrinsically driven to achieve fulfillment and psychological growth.
What is psychological growth and development?Psychological development is the development of human cognitive, emotional, intellectual, and social skills, and functioning over normal life spans from infancy to old age. It is the subject of a field known as developmental psychology.Example: Children learn from their interactions with others, especially their parents. This includes reproducing emotions expressed by others. Mimicking facial expressions is one of the key milestones in a child's social development.What is the importance of psychological growth?Growth requires continually expanding your spiritual horizons as you expand your knowledge of the world and yourself. Learning more about yourself is invaluable because it helps you believe in your untapped abilities and allows you to recognize how you can improve.
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in order to be considered a science, psychology required the ability to measure outcomes. one theorists, skinner, stated that the study of is one way to do this.
From the question we can see that a person named Skinner believed that psychology should focus on the study of behavior and that type of conditioning is known as operant conditioning.
With operant conditioning, reinforcement is used to increase the probability that a given behavior will recur. Three elements are fundamental in operant conditioning:
(1) the forerunner, or climate in which conduct happens
(2) the way of behaving, or reaction and
(3) the result that follows the way of behaving.
Therapists and others utilize forming to shape complex human way of behaving. Various chronicles of support bring about operant separation, implying that various organic entities will answer distinctively to similar natural possibilities. Individuals may likewise answer much the same way to various natural boosts, an interaction Skinner called stimulus generalization. Anything inside the climate that fortifies a way of behaving is a reinforcer. Uplifting feedback is any improvement that when added to a circumstance expands the likelihood that a given conduct will happen. Negative support is the reinforcing of conduct through the evacuation of an aversive improvement. Both positive and negative support reinforce conduct. Any occasion that diminishes a way of behaving either by introducing an aversive upgrade or by eliminating a positive one is called discipline. The impacts of discipline are significantly less unsurprising than those of remuneration. Both discipline and support can result from either normal outcomes or from human burden. Conditioned reinforcers are those upgrades that are not essentially fulfilling (e.g., cash), but rather that can turn out to be so when they are related with an essential reinforcers, like food. Summed up reinforcers are adapted reinforcers that have become related with a few essential reinforcers. Support can follow conduct on either a consistent timetable or on a discontinuous timetable. There are four essential irregular timetables:
(1) fixed-proportion, on which the living being is supported discontinuously as per the quantity of reactions it makes
(2) variable-proportion, on which the creature is built up after a normal of a foreordained number of reactions
3) fixed-span, on which the organic entity is supported for the principal reaction following an assigned timeframe and
(4) variable stretch, on which the organic entity is built up after the slip by of different timeframes.
The inclination of a formerly gained reaction to turn out to be logically debilitated upon nonreinforcement is called extinction. Such elimination or weakening of a response is called classical extinction in a classical conditioning model and operant extinction when the response is acquired through operant conditioning.
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the professor who cares only about student grades and isn't concerned with his students' personal well-being or morale is demonstrating what kind of leadership? a. expressive b. instrumental c. charismatic d. legal-rational
The professor who cares only about student grades and isn't concerned with his students' personal well-being or morale is demonstrating instrumental leadership. So, option (b) is the relevant option.
Give a brief account on leadership.A person, group, or organization's capacity to "lead," persuade, or guide others includes both the leadership research area and the actual leadership talent. "Leadership" is frequently portrayed as a divisive concept. In specialized literature, many perspectives on the subject are discussed, sometimes contrasting Eastern and Western approaches to leadership as well as North American and European approaches.
In American academic institutions, the definition of leadership is "a process of social influence in which a person can enlist the cooperation and support of others in the fulfillment of a common and ethical task." In essence, leadership can be described as a powerful relationship in which the influence of one party (the "leader") encourages others to move or change (the "followers"). Those who support the complex nature of leadership, which can be found at all levels of institutions in both formal and informal roles, have challenged the more traditional managerial views of leadership, which portray it as something one person possesses or owns because of their position or authority.
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