Option 3 is Correct. Ecologists have not put out the argument that greater environmental homogeneity in the tropics over temperate regions explains greater species diversity there.
Pest outbreaks, landslides, insect outbreaks, windstorms, and fires are a few examples of ecological disturbances. As a result, the community reacts to a variety of disturbances, and moderate disturbance levels improve the species diversity of the community.
According to the notion, smaller, more remote islands contain fewer plant and animal species. The opposite is also accurate. The richness and quantity of plant and animal species are greater on larger, less isolated islands. One method for biodiversity conservation is the eradication of invasive species. The native species they have adversely harmed will be able to reclaim their ecological niches as a result.
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Correct Question:
which of the following is not a hypothesis proposed by ecologists to explain increased species diversity in the tropics? group of answer choices
1. increased time since perturbation in the tropics over temperate regions
2. increased productivity in the tropics over temperate regions
3. increased environmental homogeneity in the tropics over temperate regions
4. increased favorable environments in the tropics over temperate regions 5. increased speciation rates and decreased extinction rates in the tropics over temperate regions
Increased environmental homogeneity in the tropics over temperate regions is not a hypothesis proposed by ecologists to explain increased species diversity in the tropics.
Ecogeography is the name of the branch of biology that deals with the global distribution of species and their corresponding environments. Being near the equator, receiving sufficient rainfall, high rainfall, and experiencing humid weather are just a few of the characteristics of tropical regions.
Thus, the presence of a plentiful supply of water and solar radiation allows for the growth of photosynthetic plants in the tropical zone.
Because of the year-round consistency of the tropical environment, which promotes the growth and development of a greater variety of plants and animals, the tropics are home to more species than temperate regions. This is because resources like light, moisture, and warmer temperatures are more readily available.
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as the enzyme trypsin cuts peptide chains mainly at the carboxyl side of the amino acids lysine or arginine are these side chains consistent with their role in specificity?
The aromatic amino acids include phenylalanine (which has a phenyl group) and tyrosine, according to the list of amino acids (with a phenolic group).
Chymotrypsin's pocket has a preference for aromatic amino acids or amino acids with large hydrophobic chain .There are no amino acids among the remainder with large hydrophobic side chains. Although it possesses a 3-carbon side chain, the guanidino group in arginine makes it hydrophilic rather than a bulky hydrophobic R-group. Although alanine is hydrophobic, it is not bulky since its R-group solely consists of the methyl (-CH3) group. Neither hydrophobic nor aromatic, aspartate is neither. Finally, glycine is really straightforward; it just possesses a -H R-group. Proteases that behave like trypsin and break peptide bonds after positively charged amino acids (Lysine or Argenine)
Protease that is similar to elastase and has a significantly smaller S1 cleft than proteases that are similar to trypsin or chymotrypsin.
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List cell structures too small to observe using the compound light microscope.
The structure that are smaller the wavelength of visible light cannot be seen by compound microscope.
These small structures that doesn't show up in microscope include, for instance:
Ribosomes are tiny, spherical organelles that are in charge of producing proteins.Mitochondria: These are the organelles in charge of supplying the cell with energy.Endoplasmic reticulum: This system of stacked, flattened sacs is important in the creation of proteins and lipids.Proteins and lipids are sorted, modified, and transported under the control of the Golgi apparatus.Microfilaments: These tiny cytoskeletal filaments aid in giving cells their mechanical strength.Microvilli: These are tiny, finger-like protrusions that enhance the surface area of cells and are involved in absorbing and secreting substances. TCilia: These two tiny, hair-like organelles are used for movement and are called cilia and flagella.To know more about microscope, click here,
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Cell structures too small to observe using the compound light microscope include ribosomes, lysosomes, and mitochondria.
Ribosomes are small organelles, approximately 20 nanometers in diameter, which are responsible for the production of proteins.
Lysosomes are membrane-bound organelles that contain hydrolytic enzymes to break down cellular materials, and they are typically around 0.5-1.0 micrometers in diameter.
Mitochondria are organelles responsible for energy production and are typically between 0.5 and 1.0 micrometers in size, but can be up to 10 micrometers in size.
All of these cell structures are too small to be seen with a compound light microscope, which is only capable of magnifying objects up to approximately 1,000x, which is not enough to observe these small organelles.
To observe these cell structures, a higher-powered microscope is needed, such as an electron microscope, which is capable of magnifying objects to a much greater degree.
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Which is the mRNA molecule that would be transcribed from this DNA template: TGG-CAA-GTA-CGT
(A) UCCGUUCUUGCU
(B) ACCGUUCAUGCA
(C) ACCGTTCATGCA
(D) UGGCAAGUACGU
Answer:
ACC-GUU-CAU-GCA
do you think you can make a difference with your family or society? how?
Answer:
this is a opinion based question
Answer:
yes you can
Explanation:
you can lent a hand around your society and help those in need
in the central dogma of biology, what part is transcription?
Answer:
Conversion of DNA into mRNA
Explanation:
Central Dogma was given by Fancis Crick .According to which information flows from DNA to mRNA to proteins.DNA to mRNA by process called transcription.mRNA to proteins by process called translation.Hope this helps!
the most common type of personal protective equipment available for first aiders to protect against blood borne pathogens is:
Gloves are always required, but gowns, face shields, eye protection, and pocket masks may also be required. Latex gloves and gowns-gloves and gowns protect your skin and hands from blood contact.
Personal protective equipment, such as gloves, gowns, masks, eye protection (e.g., goggles), and face shields, are both required by the Bloodborne Pathogens standard (29 CFR 1910.1030) and the CDC's recommended standard precautions to protect employees from infectious diseases.
Gloves, gowns, laboratory coats, face shields or masks, eye protection, pocket masks, and other protective gear are examples of personal protective equipment. The PPE used must be suitable for the task.
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what factor determines how a post-synaptic/effector cell will respond to the presence of a particular pre-synaptic neurotransmitter
When neurotransmitter molecules bind to the receptors, a synaptic impact is produced. The impact is proportional to the neurotransmitter's average concentration.
The following are some of the elements that affect how well neurotransmitters attach to their receptors: the neurotransmitter concentration. the relationship between the receptor and the neurotransmitter. The type of channel that is linked to the receptor and the concentration of permeant ions both within and outside the cell determine whether a postsynaptic response is an EPSP or an IPSP.
Depolarization, or a reduction in negative charge, forms an excitatory PSP because it can stimulate the production of a nerve impulse if the neuron achieves the crucial threshold potential (action potential).
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The factor that determines how the post-synaptic/effector cell responds to the presence of a particular pre-synaptic neurotransmitter is: the net change in post-synaptic membrane voltage.
A neurotransmitter is a chemical substance that acts in between two nerve cells to transmit the electrical signals in chemical forms from one nerve cell to another. Neurotransmitter can be excitatory or inhibitory. The example of neurotransmitters are: acetylcholine, dopamine, GABA, glutamate, etc.
Membrane voltage, also called membrane potential is defines as the difference in the charge between the inside and the outside of the membrane. This difference in charge is due to the different concentrations of ions on both sides.
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what statement best summarizes the results? what statement best summarizes the results? this data does not help us understand effects of gene flow on fitness. the gene flow between hatchery-reared and wild populations is neither helping nor hindering the fitness of the wild population. the gene flow between hatchery-reared and wild populations is leading to a decline in fitness of wild populations. the gene flow between hatchery-reared and wild populations is increasing the fitness of the wild populations.
The statement that best summarizes the results is "The gene flow between hatchery-reared and wild populations is neither helping nor hindering the fitness of the wild population."
This statement suggests that the data does not show a significant positive or negative impact of gene flow on the fitness of the wild population. It may also suggest that more research is needed to fully understand the effects of gene flow on the fitness of wild populations.
Gene flow refers to the movement of genes from one population to another, and can occur through various mechanisms such as migration, hybridization, or the dispersal of genetic material through seed or pollen.
When wild populations interbreed with hatchery-reared individuals, the genetic makeup of the wild population may change as a result of the influx of new genes from the hatchery-reared individuals. This can potentially have both positive and negative effects on the fitness of the wild population.
Positive effects may include the introduction of beneficial alleles (versions of a gene) that increase the population's overall fitness, such as disease resistance or improved reproductive success. On the other hand, negative effects may include the introduction of deleterious alleles that decrease the population's overall fitness, such as reduced survival or lower fertility.
The statement "The gene flow between hatchery-reared and wild populations is neither helping nor hindering the fitness of the wild population" suggests that the data collected does not indicate a significant positive or negative impact of gene flow on the fitness of the wild population. This could be due to a variety of reasons such as the small sample size, lack of data on specific genetic markers, or the complexity of measuring fitness.
It is important to note that this statement does not rule out the
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Some scientist hypothesize that genetically engineering salmon to increase their size and the rate of growth can help meet human demands for protein. Which of these questions addresses the biggest concern scientist should research before releasing the genetically engineered salmon to the wild?
Some scientists hypothesize that genetically engineering salmon to increase their size and the rate of growth can help meet human demands for protein.
The conundrum of eating Genetically modified fish is that their primary moral arguments are condensed. There have been a number of questions raised against introduction of GM crops, including potential harm to human health, the environment, traditional farming practices and the "unnaturalness" of the technology.
Genetic engineering and selective breeding appears to incorporate the animals manipulation for human interests, such that they were nothing more than human property, rather than seeing them as having value in and of themselves, and this looks to be an apparent violation of animal rights.
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what is the process of making rna from a dna template?
The process of making RNA from a DNA template is called transcription.
The process of creating RNA from DNA is known as transcription, and it takes place in the nucleus. Transcription is the process of copying (transcription) DNA to mRNA, which carries the information needed for protein synthesis. Transcription is divided into two stages. First, pre-messenger RNA is synthesised with the help of RNA polymerase enzymes.
Transcription RNA is created from DNA by an enzyme called RNA polymerase during the transcription process. Rather than being identical copies of the template, the new RNA sequences are complementary to it. Ribosomes are structures that translate RNA into proteins.
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The process of making RNA from a DNA template is called transcription.
During transcription, the enzyme RNA polymerase binds to the DNA at the promoter region and separates the two strands of the DNA. It then works along the template strand, adding complementary ribonucleotides (A, U, G, and C) to form a single-stranded RNA molecule.
The RNA polymerase continues to add nucleotides until it reaches a termination signal, at which point it releases the newly synthesized RNA molecule.
The RNA molecule is then processed, which typically involves the removal of certain sections and the addition of a poly-A tail to the 3' end of the molecule. The resulting molecule is the mature RNA, which is ready to be translated into a protein.
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Part B: Simulate Deforestation
Next, you’ll build a simulation showing the changes in a portion of the forest over time. This sample shows a forest region.
Forest Region
A 3 by 4 grid of rectangle blocks. 2 are black and 10 are gray.
Gray: untouched region (150 trees per block)
Black: deforested region (no surviving trees)
Use your word-processing program’s table maker to create three grids showing the rate of deforestation of a forest in three different years—year 1, year 5, and year 10. Choose colors to represent the deforested and untouched regions. Provide a key that shows the number of trees represented by each block, as well as the colors that represent the forested and deforested areas.
Here are the specifications for your forest:
The forest is represented by a 5 x 5 grid.
Year 1: There are a total of 4,500 trees in your forest and no deforestation. Figure out how many trees represent each block.
Year 5: 1,080 trees were deforested.
Year 10: An additional 1,980 trees were deforested.
After you’ve completed your grids, use the Insert Image button to insert screen shots of the grids in the answer space.
To facilitate human operations, deforestation is described as the extensive removal of trees from forests (or other places).
How is the deforestation test performed?In the modern world, there are numerous techniques to quantify deforestation. For instance, researchers can utilize satellite imaging and/or LiDAR to identify shifts in global forest growth and density.Reforestation is the process of reestablishing or replanting forests after they have been destroyed by fire or logging.To facilitate human operations, deforestation is described as the extensive removal of trees from forests (or other places). Since it may cause soil erosion, harm to natural ecosystems, disruptions to the water cycle, and loss of biodiversity, it is a severe environmental concern.To facilitate human operations, deforestation is described as the extensive removal of trees from forests (or other places).To learn more about deforestation refer to:
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what is the function of sunlight in photosynthesis
The function of sunlight in photosynthesis is to excite the electrons found in the chlorophyll to operate a series of reducing-oxidizing (redox) reactions in the photosystems and other associated proteins in the chlorophyll.
The end product of which is to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) which is considered as a currency for energy.
Photosynthesis is a process by which plants and other organisms produce food from sunlight. The food produced by photosynthetic organisms is in the form of carbohydrate molecules, which is synthesized by using carbon dioxide and water, releasing oxygen as a waste product. In plants, conversion of sunlight, carbon dioxide gas, and water into glucose is done inside the chloroplasts, the plant organelles that contain chlorophyll which drives the reaction for photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis occurs in two stages: light-dependent reactions, in which sunlight is captured to produce energy, and light-independent reactions ,where the energy produced is used to drive the conversion of carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates.
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PLEASE HELP ASAP 30 points and will give brainlist !!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Text Version
Using the diagram above, answer the following questions:
True or False. The arrow labeled C represents a transfer of chemical energy to mechanical energy. Explain why this is true or false. False because it goes to chemical to thermal.
True or False. The arrow labeled A represents a transfer of solar energy to chemical energy. Explain why this is true or false. True because it goes from the sun which is thermal to the plant and that photosynthesis which is chemical.
Which arrow or arrows represent a release of carbon dioxide? What process is occurring at the arrow(s) you selected?
Which arrow or arrows indicate a process that cycles carbon from living or nonliving organisms? Describe the process or processes you selected.
Which arrow or arrows represent reactions that demonstrate a conservation of mass and energy? Explain your answer.
Answer:
the arrow that points into the ground represents conservation of mass energy bc that is where it is stored.
During the Cretaceous period of Earth’s geological history, eastern Montana was covered with lowland swamps rich in plant life. These plants were buried and slowly decomposed. What did these plants eventually form?
These Plants eventually produce fossil fuels like coal.
The Cretaceous is the final part of the Mesozoic Era, lasting from 145.5 million years ago to 65.5 million years ago, and is characterized by the demise of the dinosaurs (except birds). The supercontinent Pangea was already rifting apart at the start of the Cretaceous, and by the middle of the period, it had fragmented into several smaller continents. As a result, the two new land masses experienced a significant geographic isolation that led to a divergence in the development of all land-based species. Along with the huge new beaches, the rifting apart also increased the amount of near-shore habitat that was accessible. In addition, as the world's climate cooled, the seasons became more distinct. By the end of the Cretaceous period, oaks, hickories, and magnolias had become widespread in North America, and forests had evolved to resemble modern forests.
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The plants buried during the Cretaceous period and slowly decomposed get transformed into fossil fuels like coal.
The Cretaceous period in early geologic time was known to exist for about 66 million years and is one of the three periods of the mesozoic era.
With the evolution of time and history the mostly expected form to come out from the buried plant remains of eastern Montana is of the fossils and mainly coal.
Due to the presence of the swampy area in the region of eastern Montana peat is the form of coal to be mined out from this region of search.
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7. compare a thin unmyelinated and thick myelinated cylinder of axon in terms of their membrane resistance, capacitance, and internal (axial resistance). what are the implications of each property on ap speed
By reducing the membrane capacitance, the propagation velocity can also be increased. You can do this by coating. Unmyelinated gaps around 2 m long are called nodular spaces (nodes of Ranvier).
We emphasise that voltage-gated sodium channels run the whole length of the membrane in unmyelinated axons. In contrast, voltage-gated sodium channels are only present in the nodal gaps of myelinated axons. Unmyelinated gaps around 2 m long are called nodular spaces (nodes of Ranvier). Axons with a larger diameter have a higher speed, allowing them to transmit impulses more quickly. This is due to the ion flow encountering less resistance. Nerve impulses in myelinated neurons leap over the myelin sheath instead of pass through it, shortening the path to the axon terminal, allowing them to transmit impulses more quickly than unmyelinated neurons. The myelin sheath has a high percentage of fatty molecules, which causes this to happen.
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The propagation velocity can also be boosted by decreasing the membrane capacitance. Coating can help you with this. Nodular spaces refer to 2 m-long unmyelinated gaps (nodes of Ranvier).
We emphasize that in unmyelinated axons, voltage-gated sodium channels extend the entire length of the membrane. Voltage-gated sodium channels, on the other hand, are only found in the nodal gaps of myelinated axons. Nodular spaces refer to 2 m-long unmyelinated gaps (nodes of Ranvier).
Larger axons move faster and can transfer impulses more quickly because of this. This is because there is less resistance to the ion flow. The journey to the axon terminal is shortened in myelinated neurons because nerve impulses jump over the myelin sheath rather than through it.
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How does the body regulate the amount of carbon dioxide in the blood?
O it instructs the liver to absorb or release carbon dioxide by sending signals through the nervous system
O it controls the rate of breathing by sending signals through the nervous system
O it instructs the liver to absorb or release carbon dioxide by sending hormones through the blood
O it controls the rate of breathing by sending hormones through the blood
The blood's pH value drops as more carbon dioxide up in it .it controls the rate of breathing by sending hormones through the bloodthe brain controls how much carbon dioxide is exhaled (ventilation).
The correct answer is D
What does ventilation provide as a means of?The mechanical arrangement in a structure that introduces "fresh" external air and exhausts "contaminated" internal air is known as ventilation. Ventilation is utilized in the workplace to limit exposure with airborne contaminants.
Why is a patient ventilated?When you are unable to breathe on your own, ventilator is a sort of therapy that assists you or takes over for you. During operation or if your lung aren't functioning properly, you can be on a ventilator. oxygen is delivered, mechanical ventilation maintains your airways open, and
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5. Your friends say that they saw a special nail polish that changes color when it is out in the sun. Can light from the sun cause the nail polish to change color? a No. Light is not a physical thing so it cannot change physical things like nail polish. B Yes. Light from the sun can pull energy out of the nail polish: causing it to change color C Yes. The nail polish can take in energy from the light causing it to change color. No. Light can only change things by warming them up, so it cannot cause the nail polish to change color.
Option C. Yes. The nail polish can take in energy from the light causing it to change color.
The nail polish is likely made with a special pigment or chemical that is sensitive to light, specifically UV light. When the nail polish is exposed to UV light, such as sunlight, the pigment or chemical reacts and changes color. This is a common feature in "thermochromic" or "photochromic" nail polishes. The light energy causes a chemical reaction that results in a change in the color of the polish. This is different from light just warming something up as option D suggests.
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Option C. Yes. The nail polish can take in energy from the light causing it to change color.
The nail polish is likely made with a special pigment or chemical that is sensitive to light, specifically UV light. When the nail polish is exposed to UV light, such as sunlight, the pigment or chemical reacts and changes color. This is a common feature in "thermochromic" or "photochromic" nail polishes. The light energy causes a chemical reaction that results in a change in the color of the polish. This is different from light just warming something up as option D suggests.
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Do all mammals have the same genes that give similar characteristics?
All mammals have the same genes that give similar characteristics. Different forms of these genes called alleles are responsible for changes. Thus, the given statement is true.
What are Genes?Gene is the basic unit of heredity which is passed on from parent generation to their children. Genes are made up of sequences of DNA and these are arranged, one after the another, at specific locations on the chromosomes in the nucleus of cells.
Different members of the same species show the presence of same genes which give them similar characteristics. However, these are not guaranteed to look the same. The organisms are not guaranteed to have the same organs and are also not guaranteed to be able to interbreed with each other.
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if a section of dna has 27% thymine, how much cytosine will it have?
Answer:
23%
Explanation:
Since the thymine percent is 27%, the adenine percent is also 27%. This means that cytosine and guanine both have a percent of 23% in the DNA.
which plant hormone is known as the stress hormone?
Answer:
Abscisic acid is the plant hormone which s known as the stress hormone.
how can you include the five myplate food groups into your daily diet and describe each one?
The five MyPlate food groups are fruits, vegetables, grains, proteins, and dairy.
Including the five MyPlate food groups into my daily diet is very important for a balanced nutrition. Fruits provide a great source of vitamins and minerals, and can be eaten as a snack, or added to a meal for extra flavor.
Vegetables provide an essential source of many vitamins, minerals and antioxidants. It is recommended that you eat at least five servings of veggies each day. Whole grains provide essential dietary fiber, vitamins and minerals, and can be included in the form of bread, cereal, rice, and pasta.
Protein foods are important for growth and repair and can be found in meat, poultry, fish, eggs, nuts, and legumes. Finally, dairy foods provide a great source of calcium and vitamin D, which are essential for bone health. By including all five MyPlate food groups in my daily diet, I can ensure that I am getting all the essential nutrients needed for good health.
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Is the yeast we use for baking bread considered "alive"? Students in biology class made the claim that yeast is a living thing. To find evidence, they were given a beaker containing warm water (22oC). To that, they added one package of dry baker’s yeast and 0.5 grams of sugar. After waiting 20 minutes, the students made the observations recorded in the data table seen here.
Yes, the yeast used for baking bread is considered alive.
Is the yeast we use for baking bread considered "alive"?Based on the observations recorded in the data table, it is clear that the yeast was living since it was able to absorb the sugar and produce carbon dioxide and alcohol.this is evidence of metabolism, a process associated with life.Yes, the yeast used for baking bread is considered alive. The students' experiment revealed signs of life in the yeast, as it had increased in size and produced carbon dioxide gas bubbles.This is a classic example of fermentation, which is a metabolic process that is carried out by living organisms. Fermentation is a process that breaks down sugars and starches and releases energy, carbon dioxide, and alcohol as a byproduct.This is a result of the activity of enzymes that are produced by the yeast. This is a classic example of the fermentation theory, which states that living organisms can produce energy from sugars and starches. This theory was first formulated by Louis Pasteur in the 19th century.To learn more about fermentation refer to:
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1. How will photosynthesis affect oxygen levels?
Answer:
Raises O₂ levels
Explanation:
Photosynthesis is a chemical reaction that occurs within plants in the chloroplasts, using CO₂ and water to produce O₂ and glucose:
6CO₂ + 6H₂O --> C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
Rosalind Franklin is famous for which contribution to the study of DNA?
A. creation of an accurate model of DNA structure
B. creation of an X-ray diffraction image of DNA structure
C. identification of a pattern in ratios of DNA bases
D. identification of DNA in bandages that contained pus
According to Chargaff's rule, base pairing in DNA should resemble which of the following?
A. A = T; C = G
B. A = C; T = G
C. A = G; T = U
D. A = U; C = G
Answer: A
Explanation:
A is paired with T, C is paired with G.
which method of reproduction should an organism that can reproduce both sexually and asexually use if their environment changes and it becomes more difficult to survive? why?
"Asexually reproduction should be the best method an organism that can reproduce both sexually and asexually use if their environment changes and it becomes more difficult to survive.
What is reproduction?If an organism that can reproduce both sexually and asexually experiences a change in its environment that makes survival more difficult, it should likely use asexual reproduction.
Asexual reproduction allows an organism to produce genetically identical offspring quickly and efficiently, which can increase the chances of survival in a challenging environment. Additionally, asexually reproducing organisms can take advantage of any beneficial mutations that may arise in their offspring, which can also increase their chances of survival.
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Which of these neurons carry impulses from the CNS to the effectors?A Sensory neuronsB Association neuronsC Connection neuronsD Motor neurons
The neurons that carry impulses from the CNS to the effectors are D. Motor neurons.
Motor neurons are a type of efferent neuron that transmit signals from the central nervous system (CNS) to the muscles, glands, and other effectors in the body. They play a crucial role in controlling voluntary and involuntary movements, as well as regulating the activity of various organ systems. Motor neurons are activated by the output of interneurons or other motor neurons, and their axons extend out of the CNS to synapse with the effector cells (muscles or glands).
Sensory neurons, on the other hand, are a type of afferent neuron that carry signals from sensory receptors to the CNS. They play a key role in detecting changes in the environment and transmitting sensory information to the brain and spinal cord.
Association neurons, also known as interneurons, are found only in the CNS and are responsible for relaying and processing information between sensory neurons and motor neurons.
Connection neurons is not a common term in neuroscience, it can refer to the same as Association neurons.
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Cell division in bacterial and eukaryotic cells produces genetically _____ cells.
Answer:
Cell division in bacterial and eukaryotic cells produces: Genetically identical cells.
_______
Answer: identical
Explanation:
a gene is a segment of dna on a chromosome. how are genes related to the proteins made by a cell?
The different genes in the cell's DNA determine which proteins are made by the cell.
why is revaccination required every time a new seasonal influenza strain arises? the immune system is only capable of producing antibodies against seasonal influenza strains for a year after vaccination. the antibodies in a vaccine only kill the virus currently infecting a host and must be readministered with each new infection. newly evolved influenza strains may have mutations that help antibodies bind more effectively to the surface proteins on the virus. the immunity acquired for one seasonal influenza strain does not protect against new strains with different surface proteins.
Because immunity wanes after a year and because the viruses used to make the vaccine are changed practically each year, influenza vaccination is administered each year.
Influenza viruses are members of the Orthomyxoviridae family and have a single-stranded segmented RNA genome. Based on their core proteins, influenza viruses are divided into kinds A, B, and C. Type A viruses are further split into groups based on whether their envelope glycoproteins have neuraminidase (NA) or haemagglutinin (HA) activity. The influenza virus experiences significant rates of mutation and frequent genetic reassortment (combination and rearrangement of genetic material), characteristics of many RNA genome viruses that cause variation in HA and NA antigens. Antigenic drift, which regularly occurs in influenza A strains due to small protein structural changes, allows the virus to repeatedly produce influenza outbreaks by eluding immunological detection. Reassortment from several influenza A strains results in significant alterations in the influenza type A HA antigen, or "antigenic shift.
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