The option that is incorrectly matched is:Basophil & Heparin for the immune system.
Explanation:Basophils are a type of white blood cells that account for less than 1% of all white blood cells in the human body. They help to intensify the inflammatory response by releasing chemicals like histamine. On the other hand, heparin is a blood-thinning medication used to treat and prevent blood clots. It is not produced by basophils.The correct matchings are:Natural Killer Cells & Innate Immune System:
These cells are a type of white blood cell that are an important part of the body's innate immune system.Lymphocytes & Acquired, Adaptive Immune System: These cells are a type of white blood cell that are a part of the acquired, adaptive immune system. Eosinophil & Parasitic Worms: These cells are a type of white blood cell that are involved in fighting off parasitic infections. NETs (Neutrophil Extracellular Traps) & Innate Immune System:
These are web-like structures that neutrophils, another type of white blood cell, release to capture and destroy pathogens.
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How is a polynucleotide chain read in a nucleic acid structure?
From the 5'-end to the 3'-end.
From the 3'-end to the 5'-tail.
From the poly(U) head to the poly(A) tail.
From the poly-p head to the 5'-end.
In a nucleic acid structure, a polynucleotide chain is read from the 5'-end to the 3'-end. (Option A)
A polynucleotide chain is an extended chain of nucleotides, which includes both DNA and RNA. DNA has a double-stranded helix structure, while RNA has a single-stranded structure.
The nucleotides in a polynucleotide chain are linked together by phosphodiester bonds. The phosphodiester bonds create a backbone for the polynucleotide chain, which alternates between a phosphate group and a sugar molecule. A nucleotide is a molecule that consists of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group. The nitrogenous base can be either a purine (adenine or guanine) or a pyrimidine (cytosine or thymine in DNA or uracil in RNA).
In a polynucleotide chain, the nitrogenous bases pair up through hydrogen bonds. Adenine pairs with thymine (DNA) or uracil (RNA) through two hydrogen bonds, while guanine pairs with cytosine through three hydrogen bonds. This base pairing allows DNA to replicate and RNA to transcribe genetic information.
Thus, the correct option is A.
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Question 24 Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) is the substrate that is to assist in energy production in Stage IV of CHO metabolism? reduced Oxidized O glycolysize O phosphorylate
In Stage IV of carbohydrate (CHO) metabolism, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) serves as a coenzyme that plays a crucial role in energy production.
Specifically, NAD is involved in the oxidation-reduction reactions that occur during oxidative phosphorylation, the final stage of CHO metabolism.
During oxidative phosphorylation, the reduced form of NAD (NADH) is oxidized to its oxidized form (NAD+).
This oxidation process occurs in the electron transport chain, where NADH transfers its electrons to the electron transport chain complexes, leading to the generation of ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
So, the correct answer to the question is "oxidized." NAD is oxidized in Stage IV of CHO metabolism to facilitate energy production through oxidative phosphorylation.
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Compare the theory and practice behind convectional polymerase chain reaction (PCR), real-time PCR and DNA sequencing. Please be sure to include in your answer an explanation of the use of the various reagents in these processes. • This is all about the advancement from detecting the amplicon at the end-point of the reaction (Conventional PCR) to detection while the reaction is occurring (Real-Time PCR) and then the identification of the amplified gene sequence (by Sequencing) • What can be compared here is the conventional and Real-Time PCRS (outlining the advantages of the latter over the first • The last point will be to explaining the use of each reagent (i.e Taq polymerase, DNTPs, primers, Salts and water) in PCR. What do they do in the reaction
The theory and practice behind conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR), real-time PCR, and DNA sequencing represent advancements in detecting and analyzing DNA molecules.
Conventional PCR involves a series of temperature cycles to amplify specific DNA regions. It requires a DNA template, primers that flank the target region, Taq polymerase enzyme, deoxynucleotide triphosphates (dNTPs), salts, and water.
The reaction proceeds through cycles of denaturation, annealing, and extension, resulting in exponential DNA amplification. The end-point of the reaction is typically analyzed by gel electrophoresis, which detects the amplified DNA after completion of the PCR.
Real-time PCR, also known as quantitative PCR (qPCR), allows for the detection and quantification of DNA amplification in real-time as the reaction progresses. It employs the same components as conventional PCR but incorporates fluorescent dyes or probes to monitor the amplification.
These dyes emit fluorescence signals that are measured during each temperature cycle, providing real-time data on the amount of DNA amplification. Real-time PCR offers several advantages over conventional PCR, including increased sensitivity, quantitative analysis, and the ability to detect amplification at an early stage.
DNA sequencing, on the other hand, goes beyond PCR and aims to determine the actual sequence of the DNA molecule. It involves reading the order of nucleotides in a DNA strand, allowing for the identification of genetic variations, mutations, or specific genes of interest.
DNA sequencing methods have evolved over time, with modern techniques like Sanger sequencing and next-generation sequencing (NGS) enabling high-throughput sequencing with increased speed and accuracy.
In all PCR techniques, the reagents play essential roles. Taq polymerase is a heat-stable DNA polymerase that synthesizes new DNA strands during the extension phase. dNTPs are the building blocks of DNA and provide the necessary nucleotides for DNA synthesis.
Primers are short DNA sequences that specifically bind to the target regions and initiate DNA amplification. Salts and water provide the appropriate buffer conditions for the enzymatic reactions and maintain the overall reaction environment.
Collectively, these reagents enable the efficient and specific amplification of DNA segments in PCR techniques.
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1. Most major systems in the boy begin to lose their capacity in what stage of aging? a. Young and middle adulthood b. Senescence c. Adolescence d. Middle and later adulthood 2. Pathophysiology is the
Most major systems in the body begin to lose their capacity in middle and later adulthood. So, option D is accurate.
As individuals age, there is a gradual decline in the functional capacity of various systems in the body. This includes physiological systems such as cardiovascular, respiratory, immune, and musculoskeletal systems, as well as cognitive functions. Middle and later adulthood is characterized by age-related changes and an increased susceptibility to chronic conditions and diseases. The decline in physiological function is a natural part of the aging process, although the rate and extent of decline can vary among individuals. It is important to promote healthy lifestyles, engage in regular physical activity, maintain a balanced diet, and seek appropriate medical care to mitigate the effects of aging on the body's systems.
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1. According to the Cell Theory, cells are viewed as the minimal functional units of organisms. True/ False 2. The region of a eukaryotic cell that is enclosed by the plasma membrane but not enclosed by any internal membrane is termed the _______________.
A. extracellular environment
B. cytoplasm
C. lumen
D. cytosol
According to the Cell Theory, cells are viewed as the minimal functional units of organisms. True The cytosol, also known as the cytoplasmic matrix or groundplasm, is the liquid component of the cytoplasm in eukaryotic cells. So correct answer is D
The Cell Theory is a biological theory that states that cells are the basic building blocks of all living organisms, and that all organisms are made up of one or more cells. The theory further suggests that cells are the functional and structural units of life, and that cells are responsible for carrying out all of the functions necessary for the survival of an organism. This includes processes such as metabolism, reproduction, and responding to stimuli.
2. The region of a eukaryotic cell that is enclosed by the plasma membrane but not enclosed by any internal membrane is termed the _______________. It is the region of the cell that is enclosed by the plasma membrane but not enclosed by any internal membrane. The cytosol contains various organelles, including the mitochondria, ribosomes, and the cytoskeleton. It also contains various dissolved molecules, such as enzymes, nucleic acids, and ions. The cytosol plays a vital role in various cellular processes, such as protein synthesis, cell division, and cell signaling.
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list three major organs and describe the body cavity they are
located in
organs situated in different body cavities, play crucial roles in maintaining various bodily functions and are essential for overall health and well-being.
Three major organs and the body cavities they are located in are:
Heart - Located in the thoracic cavity: The heart is a vital organ responsible for pumping blood throughout the body. It is located in the thoracic cavity, specifically in the middle mediastinum. The mediastinum is the central compartment of the thoracic cavity, located between the lungs. The heart is surrounded by a protective sac called the pericardium and is positioned posterior to the sternum and anterior to the vertebral column. It is also slightly tilted towards the left side of the chest.
Liver - Located in the abdominal cavity: The liver is the largest internal organ in the human body and is located in the abdominal cavity. More specifically, it is positioned in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen, just beneath the diaphragm. The liver is protected by the ribcage and is closely associated with other organs in the abdominal region. It performs a wide range of functions, including detoxification, metabolism, storage of nutrients, and production of bile.
Kidneys - Located in the retroperitoneal space: The kidneys are a pair of bean-shaped organs responsible for filtering waste products and excess fluids from the blood to produce urine. They are located in the retroperitoneal space, which is a posterior compartment behind the peritoneum. The retroperitoneal space lies between the posterior abdominal wall and the peritoneum that lines the abdominal cavity. The kidneys are positioned on either side of the vertebral column, with the right kidney slightly lower than the left.
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Water Vitamin B-12 Vitamins B's and C Vitamin D. Selenium, Zinc, and Iron 1 Vitamin A Fats and Carbohydrates Unsaturated Fats Protein Saturated Fats Thiamine ✓ Omega 3 h. Salmonella ✓ BMI Bile Soluble fiber i a. Supports healthy vision b. Enrichment nutrient added to refined flour c. Promotes cellular development growth & maintenance d. Essential minerals e. Helps reduce blood cholesterol levels f. Most essential nutrient Primary sources of energy for the body h. Bacteria found in undercooked meats, fish, and eggs Liquid at room temperature F A numerical value based on the relationship between body weight and risk of chronic diseases associated with excess body fat k. Solid at room temperature May be deficient in a person who eats a strict vegan diet m. In addition to food is available from the sun vate Windows n. Emulsifier that facilitates lipid digestion o Fatty acid found in cold water fish such as salmon Site W
The provided list contains various nutrients and terms related to nutrition and health. It includes vitamins such as B-12, B's and C, D, and A, along with minerals like selenium, zinc, and iron.
It also mentions macronutrients like fats, carbohydrates, and proteins, highlighting the distinction between saturated and unsaturated fats. The list further covers concepts like BMI (Body Mass Index), soluble fiber, Salmonella bacteria, and the role of sunlight in obtaining vitamin D.
The list encompasses a range of nutrients and concepts related to nutrition and health. Here's an explanation of each item:
- Vitamin B-12: An essential vitamin involved in nerve function and the formation of red blood cells.
- Vitamins B's and C: A group of water-soluble vitamins that play important roles in energy metabolism and immune function.
- Vitamin D: A vitamin synthesized by the body in response to sunlight exposure and important for bone health.
- Selenium, Zinc, and Iron: Essential minerals required for various bodily functions, including immune function and oxygen transport.
- Vitamin A: Essential for vision, immune function, and cellular growth and development.
- Fats and Carbohydrates: Macronutrients that provide energy for the body.
- Unsaturated Fats: Liquid at room temperature and considered healthier fats, found in sources like oils, nuts, and avocados.
- Protein: Essential for growth, maintenance, and repair of tissues.
- Saturated Fats: Solid at room temperature and commonly found in animal products, associated with increased risk of heart disease.
- Thiamine: Also known as vitamin B1, it is important for energy metabolism and nervous system function.
- Omega 3: A type of fatty acid commonly found in cold water fish, associated with numerous health benefits.
- Salmonella: Bacteria that can cause food poisoning, often found in undercooked meats, fish, and eggs.
- BMI: A numerical value used to assess body weight in relation to the risk of chronic diseases associated with excess body fat.
- Bile: An emulsifier produced by the liver that aids in the digestion and absorption of fats.
- Soluble fiber: A type of fiber that dissolves in water and helps reduce blood cholesterol levels.
- Vitamin D: In addition to dietary sources, it can be obtained from exposure to sunlight through the skin.
Overall, the list covers various nutrients, health concepts, and their roles in the body, providing a brief overview of their significance in nutrition and overall well-being.
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4. A scientist claims that Elysia chlorotica, a species of sea slug, is capable of photosynthesis.
Which of the following observations provides the best evidence to support the claim?
(A) Elysia chlorotica will die if not exposed to light.
(B) Elala choing grows when exposed to light in the absence of other food sources. (C) Elis chaotion grows faster when exposed to light than when placed in the dark.
(D) Elyria chileration grows in the dark when food sources are available.
According to the scientist’s claim, Elysia chlorotica, a species of sea slug, is capable of photosynthesis. Among the observations given to support this claim, option (B) provides the best evidence. The following explanation describes the reason for it.
Option (A) suggests that Elysia chlorotica needs light to survive. This observation does not provide evidence that the sea slug can carry out photosynthesis. In fact, there are many other organisms that cannot photosynthesize but still require light to live.
Option (D) proposes that Elysia chlorotica can grow in the dark when food is available. This observation is not specific to photosynthesis because other non-photosynthetic organisms can also grow in the dark when provided with an adequate food source.
Option (C) implies that Elysia chlorotica grows faster in the presence of light. While this observation could be an indication of photosynthesis, there is no mention of the absence of food source, which makes it hard to conclude that the sea slug is photosynthetic.
Option (B) explains that Elysia chlorotica can grow when exposed to light even when other food sources are not present. This observation directly relates to photosynthesis because it demonstrates that the sea slug can produce its food using light energy in the absence of other food sources. Therefore, it provides the best evidence to support the scientist’s claim that Elysia chlorotica can photosynthesize.
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Which of these cells produces the factors for humor
immunity?
A.
Plasma B cells
B.
CD4 T cells
C.
NK Cells
D.
Naive B cells
E.
Macrophages
Plasma B cells produce the factors for humor immunity based on the antigen invasion.
The cells that produce the factors for humor immunity are Plasma B cells.What is humor immunity?Humor immunity is defined as the development of antibodies in response to antigens that enter the body. Antibodies, also known as immunoglobulins, are glycoproteins that are produced by B cells in response to an antigen invasion.
Humor immunity refers to an individual's resistance or insensitivity to humor. While humor is generally regarded as a universal source of enjoyment, some people may have difficulty appreciating or responding to it. Factors such as cultural background, personal experiences, and individual preferences can influence one's sense of humor. Humor immunity may manifest as a lack of understanding, a limited appreciation for jokes, or a tendency to perceive humor as uninteresting or irrelevant. It is important to recognize that humor immunity is subjective and varies from person to person. Ultimately, what may be funny to some may not elicit the same response from individuals with humor immunity.
The following cells are involved in humor immunity:Plasma B cellsMemory B cellsHelper T cellsIn response to antigens, naive B cells differentiate into plasma cells. Plasma cells produce antibodies that bind to the antigen and aid in its removal from the body. Therefore, plasma B cells produce the factors for humor immunity.
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Receptors (sensors) form the first part of the control mechanism. What is a receptor? Provide an explanation then give one example of where a receptor is found, explaining its role is in monitoring homeostasis.
A receptor is a cell that can detect stimuli within the body, responding to chemical and physical changes by initiating a series of events to maintain the stability of the internal environment.
Receptors are found throughout the body and can respond to various stimuli including temperature, pressure, light, and chemicals.
One example of a receptor is found in the human skin. The role of the receptor in monitoring homeostasis is to detect changes in the temperature of the body and transmit signals to the brain, which initiates a response to maintain the temperature within a narrow range. This process is essential in maintaining the stability of the internal environment and ensuring that the body functions effectively.
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Name the arteries that supply the kidney, in sequence from largest to smallest. Rank the options below. Afferent arterioles Glomerulus Cortical radiate arteries Peritubular capillaries
Cortical radiate arteries, Afferent arterioles, Glomerulus, Peritubular capillaries.
Cortical radiate arteries: These arteries, also known as interlobular arteries, are the largest arteries that supply the kidney. They branch off from the main renal artery and extend into the renal cortex.
Afferent arterioles: Afferent arterioles are small branches that arise from the cortical radiate arteries. They carry oxygenated blood from the cortical radiate arteries into the glomerulus.
Glomerulus: The afferent arterioles enter the renal corpuscle and form a tuft of capillaries known as the glomerulus. This is where the filtration of blood occurs in the kidney.
Peritubular capillaries: From the glomerulus, the efferent arteriole emerges, and it subsequently divides into a network of capillaries called peritubular capillaries.
These capillaries surround the renal tubules in the cortex and medulla of the kidney. They are involved in reabsorption of substances from the renal tubules back into the bloodstream.
The sequence from largest to smallest in terms of the arteries that supply the kidney is: Cortical radiate arteries, Afferent arterioles, Glomerulus, and Peritubular capillaries.
This sequence represents the flow of blood from the main renal artery to the glomerulus for filtration, and then through the peritubular capillaries for reabsorption in the renal tubules.
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explain what divisions of the nervous system are activated
during exercise? (2.5 marks)
During exercise, the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system are activated.
Here is an explanation of what each division does:
Somatic nervous system: The somatic nervous system (SNS) controls the voluntary muscles of the body. This includes the skeletal muscles involved in movement during exercise. When a person exercises, the SNS activates the skeletal muscles to contract and relax in a coordinated manner to produce movement.
Autonomic nervous system: The autonomic nervous system (ANS) controls involuntary bodily functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, digestion, and respiration. During exercise, the ANS is activated to increase heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration to provide the muscles with more oxygen and nutrients. This increase is controlled by the sympathetic branch of the ANS. The parasympathetic branch of the ANS is responsible for slowing down these functions when the exercise is finished.
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b) i) Most reflex arcs pass through the spinal cord and involve different types of neurones. NAME and STATE clearly the functions of the THREE types of neurones in a spinal reflex arc. ii) Some poisons can affect the way a synapse between neurones will function. The four organisms listed A to D below produce different toxins that can affect the functioning of a synapse: A Hapalochlaena lunulata - the blue ringed octopus B Conus textile - the textile cone sea snail C Clostridium botulinum - a bacterium D Physostigma venenosum - Calabar bean plant
Toxins can disrupt the normal functioning of synapses, affecting the transmission of signals between neurons and leading to various physiological effects.
i) In a spinal reflex arc, the three types of neurons involved are:
Sensory (Afferent) Neurons: These neurons carry sensory information from the peripheral receptors (e.g., skin, muscles) towards the central nervous system (CNS), specifically the spinal cord. Their function is to transmit signals from the sensory receptors to the CNS, providing information about external stimuli or changes in the environment.
Interneurons: These neurons are located within the CNS, specifically the spinal cord, and act as connectors or relays between sensory and motor neurons. They integrate and process incoming sensory information and determine the appropriate motor response. Interneurons play a crucial role in the reflex arc by relaying signals from sensory neurons to motor neurons within the spinal cord, bypassing the brain for rapid, involuntary responses.
Motor (Efferent) Neurons: These neurons carry signals from the CNS, particularly the spinal cord, to the muscles or glands involved in the reflex response. They transmit the motor commands that elicit the appropriate muscular or glandular activity as a response to the sensory input. Motor neurons stimulate muscle contraction or glandular secretion, allowing for the execution of the reflex action.
ii) Among the organisms listed and their toxins affecting synapse function:
A. Hapalochlaena lunulata (blue-ringed octopus): The toxin produced by this octopus contains tetrodotoxin, which blocks voltage-gated sodium channels in neurons. This prevents the normal propagation of action potentials along the axon, leading to the inhibition of synaptic transmission and muscle paralysis.
B. Conus textile (textile cone sea snail): The venom of this sea snail contains various neurotoxic peptides that interfere with neurotransmitter release at synapses. These peptides can target specific receptors or ion channels, disrupting the release or binding of neurotransmitters, thereby affecting synaptic transmission.
C. Clostridium botulinum (bacterium): This bacterium produces botulinum toxin, which is known for its ability to block the release of acetylcholine at neuromuscular junctions. By inhibiting acetylcholine release, the toxin impairs the communication between motor neurons and muscles, leading to muscle weakness and paralysis.
D. Physostigma venenosum (Calabar bean plant): The Calabar bean plant produces physostigmine, a compound that inhibits the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. By blocking acetylcholinesterase, the neurotransmitter acetylcholine is not broken down efficiently, leading to prolonged stimulation of the postsynaptic membrane and increased synaptic transmission.
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In Mendel's peas, yellow seeds are dominant to green. A pure-breeding yellow plant is crossed with a pure-breeding green plant. All of the offspring are yellow. If one of these yellow offspring is self-fertilized, what will be the expected proportion of plants with green seeds in the next generation?
All the offspring in the next generation will possess yellow seeds, and there will be no plants with green seeds. All plants will have yellow seeds due to the dominance of the yellow allele.
Mendel's pea experiments led to the formulation of the theory of inheritance, which states that each parent contributes one allele to their offspring. An allele represents a version of a gene, such as "green" or "yellow." In this context, yellow seeds are dominant, while green seeds are recessive.
When a pure-breeding yellow pea plant is crossed with a pure-breeding green pea plant, all offspring will exhibit yellow seeds in accordance with Mendel's laws of inheritance.
If one of the offspring from the aforementioned cross is self-fertilized, the next generation will inherit two alleles for seed color, one from each parent. However, since the yellow allele is dominant and the green allele is recessive, the presence of just one yellow allele will result in the expression of the yellow seed phenotype. Therefore, all the offspring in the next generation will possess yellow seeds, and there will be no plants with green seeds.
In conclusion, the expected proportion of plants with green seeds in the subsequent generation is zero.
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Nonhealing wounds on the surface of the body are often extremely difficult to manage, in part because the microbial cause of the lack of healing is often extremely difficult to identify. Create a list of reasons this might be the case.
Non-healing wounds on the surface of the body are often extremely difficult to manage because the microbial cause of the lack of healing is often extremely difficult to identify.
Non-healing wounds can occur due to different factors such as excessive inflammation, inadequate blood supply to the wound area, decreased growth factor production, etc. These factors can create an environment that is conducive to the growth of microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and viruses. The microbial colonization of wounds can delay the healing process and lead to infection, further complicating the wound management process.
Identifying the microbial cause of non-healing wounds can be challenging due to several reasons. The first reason is the presence of multiple microorganisms in the wound area. The second reason is the polymicrobial nature of the infection, which can make it difficult to isolate the pathogenic microorganism. The third reason is the presence of biofilms, which are complex microbial communities embedded in an extracellular matrix. Biofilms protect microorganisms from the immune system and antibiotics, making them difficult to eradicate.
Non-healing wounds on the surface of the body are often extremely difficult to manage because the microbial cause of the lack of healing is often extremely difficult to identify. Factors such as excessive inflammation, inadequate blood supply to the wound area, decreased growth factor production, etc., can create an environment conducive to the growth of microorganisms. Identifying the microbial cause of non-healing wounds can be challenging due to several reasons, including the presence of multiple microorganisms, the polymicrobial nature of the infection, and the presence of biofilms.
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Under normal conditions in the kidneys, which substance does not enter the filtrate from the glomerulus?
a. amino acids b. water-soluble vitamins c. minerals d. glucose e. blood proteins
Under normal conditions in the kidneys, blood proteins do not enter the filtrate from the glomerulus. So, option E is accurate.
The glomerulus is a network of capillaries in the kidney responsible for the initial filtration of blood to form urine. It acts as a selective filter, allowing small molecules and waste products to pass through while retaining larger molecules like blood proteins. Blood proteins, such as albumin and globulins, are too large to pass through the filtration barrier of the glomerulus, which consists of fenestrated capillaries and a filtration membrane. This filtration barrier prevents the entry of blood proteins into the filtrate. On the other hand, substances like amino acids, water-soluble vitamins, minerals, and glucose are small enough to pass through the filtration barrier and enter the filtrate. Therefore, under normal conditions, blood proteins do not enter the filtrate from the glomerulus.
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In the lecture videos, you learned about diseases that infect the
respiratory tract. Pick 2 diseases covered in the video and discuss the following for each of
them.
I chose Influenza and Tuberculosis
I. Type of microbe (virus or bacteria or eukaryote)
II. Prognosis of the diseases caused
III. How would the disease progress over time in patients? Would it present itself as acute,
chronic or latent disease?
IV. Any unusual characteristics of the microbe or the disease
V. Pathogenesis of diseases they cause
VI. Available treatments
I. Influenza:
I. Type of microbe: Influenza is caused by the influenza virus, which is a type of RNA virus.
II. Prognosis: The prognosis of influenza varies depending on the strain of the virus and the individual's overall health. In most cases, individuals recover from influenza within a week or two without any complications. However, certain populations, such as the elderly, young children, pregnant women, and individuals with underlying health conditions, are at higher risk of developing severe complications, including pneumonia, respiratory failure, and even death.
III. Disease progression: Influenza typically presents itself as an acute respiratory illness. The virus infects the respiratory tract, leading to symptoms such as high fever, cough, sore throat, body aches, fatigue, and nasal congestion. In uncomplicated cases, symptoms resolve within a week or two. However, severe cases can progress rapidly, leading to complications and prolonged illness.
IV. Unusual characteristics: Influenza viruses are known for their ability to undergo antigenic drift and antigenic shift, resulting in the emergence of new strains and seasonal outbreaks. This viral characteristic poses challenges in developing effective vaccines and antiviral treatments.
V. Pathogenesis: Influenza viruses primarily target the epithelial cells lining the respiratory tract. The virus enters the host cells through specific receptors and replicates, causing damage to the respiratory epithelium. This leads to the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, contributing to the characteristic symptoms of influenza.
VI. Available treatments: Treatment for influenza primarily involves supportive care, such as rest, hydration, and over-the-counter medications to relieve symptoms. Antiviral drugs, such as oseltamivir and zanamivir, may be prescribed in certain cases to reduce the severity and duration of symptoms. Vaccination is also an important preventive measure, as it helps protect against influenza infection and reduce the risk of complications.
---
I. Tuberculosis:
I. Type of microbe: Tuberculosis is caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
II. Prognosis: The prognosis of tuberculosis varies depending on various factors, including the individual's immune response, the extent of the infection, and the presence of drug resistance. In general, with appropriate treatment, most individuals with tuberculosis can be cured. However, without proper treatment, tuberculosis can be a chronic and potentially life-threatening disease.
III. Disease progression: Tuberculosis can present itself as both acute and chronic disease. In some cases, the infection remains latent, meaning the bacteria are present in the body but do not cause active disease. However, in other cases, the infection progresses to active tuberculosis, leading to symptoms such as persistent cough, fever, night sweats, weight loss, and fatigue. Without treatment, the disease can spread to other organs and cause severe complications.
IV. Unusual characteristics: Mycobacterium tuberculosis has unique characteristics that contribute to its pathogenicity and ability to evade the immune system. It has a waxy cell wall composed of mycolic acids, which makes it resistant to drying and many disinfectants. The bacteria can also enter a dormant state, forming structures called granulomas, which allow them to persist in the host for long periods, leading to latent tuberculosis.
V. Pathogenesis: Tuberculosis primarily affects the lungs but can also involve other organs. The bacteria are transmitted through inhalation of respiratory droplets containing the bacteria. Once inhaled, the bacteria can enter the alveoli of the lungs and are engulfed by macrophages. However, instead of being eliminated, the bacteria can survive and replicate within the macrophages, leading to the formation of granulomas. These granulomas help contain the infection but can also serve as a
reservoir for the bacteria.
VI. Available treatments: Tuberculosis is treated with a combination of antibiotics over an extended period, usually six to nine months. The most commonly used drugs include isoniazid, rifampin, pyrazinamide, and ethambutol. Drug resistance is a concern in tuberculosis, and treatment regimens may need to be modified based on drug susceptibility testing. Directly Observed Therapy (DOT) is often employed to ensure adherence to the treatment regimen and improve treatment outcomes.
It's important to note that these are brief overviews of the topics, and for comprehensive information and specific medical advice, consulting healthcare professionals and reliable sources is recommended.
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6. Which is not correct regarding the hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system? a. The system includes two capillary plexuses b. The system carries venous blood c. The system is the circulatory connectio
The hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system is the circulatory connection between the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary gland. This portal system carries venous blood between the two capillary plexuses.The correct answer is option C.
The hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system is the circulatory connection between the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary gland. It includes two capillary plexuses and carries venous blood from the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary gland. In the first capillary plexus, the hypothalamus secretes regulatory hormones into the blood, which then travel through the portal veins to the second capillary plexus, where they stimulate or inhibit the secretion of anterior pituitary hormones. This allows for precise control of hormone secretion by the anterior pituitary gland.The hypothalamus secretes several hormones that regulate the secretion of anterior pituitary hormones. These hormones are referred to as releasing hormones or inhibiting hormones.
For example, the hypothalamus secretes thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), which stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to secrete thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). The hypothalamus also secretes prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH), which inhibits the anterior pituitary gland from secreting prolactin. The hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland work together to regulate a wide range of physiological processes, including growth, metabolism, and reproduction.In summary, the hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system is a specialized circulatory connection that allows for precise control of hormone secretion by the anterior pituitary gland. The system includes two capillary plexuses and carries venous blood from the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary gland. The hypothalamus secretes regulatory hormones into the blood, which then travel to the second capillary plexus, where they stimulate or inhibit the secretion of anterior pituitary hormones.
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what type of goal is based on measurable and
qualifiable data
66. What type of goal is based on measurable and quantifiable data? A. Motivational goal B. Sersonal goal C. Subjective goal D. Objective goal
The type of goal based on measurable and quantifiable data is Objective goal.
Goals are the things that a person aims to achieve. They are targets that a person wants to reach. People often set goals to provide themselves with a clear path to follow while working on a specific task. Objectives are one of the most important types of goals. These are goals that are based on measurable and quantifiable data.
Objective goals are specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and time-bound. They are goals that are based on quantifiable data. Quantifiable data is the data that can be measured using a specific tool or unit of measurement. Objective goals are essential for tracking progress because they allow you to know when you have met your target. If you want to make progress towards your goal, you must track it. By tracking your progress, you can tell whether you are making progress towards your objective goals or not.
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Water is the most abundant molecule in cells, making up 70% or more of total cell mass. Humans are also mostly water. Given these facts, why is it important for a biologist to know if a molecule is polar or non-polar?
Water is a polar molecule, which means it has a slight negative charge at one end and a slight positive charge at the other end. Polar molecules are hydrophilic, which means they attract water and can dissolve in water, while non-polar molecules are hydrophobic and do not interact with water. Knowing whether a molecule is polar or non-polar is important for a biologist because it affects the way the molecule interacts with other molecules in a cell and with water molecules. It can determine how it is transported within cells and across cell membranes, how it interacts with enzymes and other proteins, and how it is metabolized.Polar molecules can form hydrogen bonds with other polar molecules or with water molecules, which can affect their solubility and reactivity.
Non-polar molecules cannot form hydrogen bonds and therefore tend to cluster together, forming structures such as membranes and lipid droplets. The polarity of a molecule can also affect its electrical charge and its ability to participate in chemical reactions. For example, in biological systems, the transfer of electrons between molecules is often facilitated by polar groups, which can help stabilize intermediates and promote the formation of new bonds. In summary, knowing whether a molecule is polar or non-polar is important for understanding its properties, interactions, and functions in biological systems.
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Which of the following statements about biofilm and microbial community behaviors is wrong? O Cyclic di-guanosine monophosphate (c-di-GMP) is a signaling molecule involved in bacterial community behaviors. O The concentration of autoinducers is negatively correlated to the number of bacterial cells in the liquid culture. Biofilm is generally more resistant to stress and antibiotics than planktonic cells. Quorum sensing is used by diverse bacteria to regulate genes involved in community behaviors.
The concentration of autoinducers is negatively correlated to the number of bacterial cells in the liquid culture.
The statement that is incorrect is "The concentration of autoinducers is negatively correlated to the number of bacterial cells in the liquid culture." In reality, the concentration of autoinducers is positively correlated with the number of bacterial cells in the liquid culture. Autoinducers are signaling molecules that bacteria release into their environment, and their concentration increases as the bacterial population grows.
Once the concentration of autoinducers reaches a certain threshold, it triggers quorum sensing, a process in which bacteria coordinate gene expression and behaviors in response to population density. This enables the bacteria to regulate various community behaviors, such as biofilm formation, virulence factor production, and nutrient acquisition, to enhance their survival and adaptation in their environment.
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Write 3000 words about Strawberry; consider temperate zone.
Strawberries are delicious, red fruits grown in the temperate zone, known for their sweet taste and texture.
Rosaceae strawberries are tasty and colourful. Their sweetness, juiciness, and vivid red colour make them popular. Strawberries grow in temperate climates globally.
Strawberry varieties and cultivation determine whether they are perennials or annuals in temperate climates. These areas have four seasons, with moderate winters and pleasant summers. The moderate environment allows strawberry plants to thrive naturally
Strawberry plants grow from seeds or transplants. Planting in the temperate zone usually occurs in spring or early summer when soil temperatures are warm enough.
Temperate strawberry plants develop actively in summer. They need plenty of sunshine, steady rainfall, and well-drained soil. Proper irrigation prevents water stress and ensures fruit growth. Mulching also prevents weeds, retains moisture, and protects fruit from dirt splashing.
Strawberry plants dormancy in fall. Active growth stops and new runners, thin stems that allow the plant to reproduce vegetatively, grow. The horizontal runners produce additional plantlets that may be rooted and utilised to enlarge the strawberry crop or transferred.
Strawberries in temperate climates struggle in winter. If unprotected, cold temperatures can destroy plants. Farmers utilise straw, and row coverings to prevent plants from freezing. These procedures protect plants from winter harm and ensure their survival till April.
Temperate strawberries grow again in April. New leaves and flowers emerge from hibernation. Strawberry need bees and other pollinators to produce fruit.
Depending on type and environment, fruiting happens late spring to early summer. Red berries ripen from green. Hand-picking ripe strawberries avoids harming them.
Strawberry adaptability makes them popular in temperate regions. They're great in salads, desserts, jams, preserves, and drinks. Their sweet-tangy taste enhances many foods.
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Which of the following is not an application of PCR?
O I. Amplifying DNA molecules
O II. Amplifying RNA molecules
O III. Synthesis of protein
O IV. Genome sequencing
Synthesis of protein is not an application of PCR. So, option III is appropriate.
PCR, or Polymerase Chain Reaction, is a widely used technique in molecular biology that allows for the amplification of specific DNA sequences. It is a powerful tool that enables researchers to generate millions or even billions of copies of a target DNA segment, making it easier to analyze and study.
PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) is a powerful molecular biology technique used for amplifying DNA molecules. It is not used for directly amplifying RNA molecules or synthesizing proteins. PCR allows for the selective amplification of specific DNA sequences, making it valuable in applications such as DNA cloning, genetic testing, forensic analysis, and diagnostic assays. Genome sequencing, on the other hand, involves determining the complete DNA sequence of an organism's genome and is a separate process from PCR.
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4.1.10 There are a number of ways in which cancer can evade the immune response. Which of the following cell types is able to kill malignant cells that have stopped expressing class I MHC?
a.macrophages
b.CD4⁺ T cells
c.NK cells
d.CD8⁺ T cells
NK cells (natural killer cells) . is able to kill malignant cells that have stopped expressing class I MHC
NK cells are a type of lymphocyte that plays a critical role in the immune response against cancer cells. They are capable of recognizing and killing target cells, including malignant cells, that have lost or downregulated the expression of class I major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules. Class I MHC molecules are normally expressed on the surface of healthy cells and play a role in presenting antigens to CD8⁺ T cells.
When cancer cells downregulate or lose expression of class I MHC molecules, they can evade recognition and destruction by CD8⁺ T cells, which primarily rely on the recognition of antigens presented by class I MHC molecules. However, NK cells have the ability to directly recognize and kill these cancer cells through a process known as "missing-self recognition." NK cells possess activating receptors that can detect the absence or alteration of class I MHC molecules on target cells, triggering their cytotoxic activity.
Therefore, in the absence of class I MHC expression, NK cells play a crucial role in eliminating malignant cells and providing a defense against cancer evasion from the immune response.
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Mutations in the LDL receptor are a dominant trait causing hypercholesterolemia. A homozygous dominant female mates with a homozygous recessive male. What is the chance they will have a child with this disorder? 1) 100% 2) 0% 3) 25% 4) 50% 5) 75%
The chance that they will have a child with the disorder is 100%.
Hypercholesterolemia caused by mutations in the LDL receptor is a dominant trait, which means that individuals who inherit even one copy of the mutated gene will exhibit the disorder. In this scenario, the female is homozygous dominant (DD) for the trait, while the male is homozygous recessive (dd). The dominant trait will be expressed in all offspring when one parent is homozygous dominant.
Since the female is homozygous dominant (DD), she can only pass on the dominant allele (D) to her offspring. The male, being homozygous recessive (dd), can only pass on the recessive allele (d). Therefore, all of their offspring will inherit one copy of the dominant allele (D) and one copy of the recessive allele (d), resulting in them having the disorder. Thus, the chance of having a child with the disorder is 100%.
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In a DNA bisulfite sequencing experiment, the following read count data for a given cytosine site in a genome were obtained:
Converted Read Unconverted Read
(Not methylated) (Methylated)
Cytosine Site 1 40 17
Other Sites 2130 361
1a : Specify a binomial statistical model for the above data and compute the MLE (Maximum Likelihood Estimation) for the model parameter, which should be the probability of methylation. (Round your answer to 3 decimal places)
1b: Assume that the true background un-conversion ratio = 0.04 is known, compute the one-sided p-value for the alternative hypothesis that the methylation proportion of cytosine site 1 is larger than the background. In your answer, use the R code `pbinom(q, size, prob)` to represent the outcome of the binomial CDF, i.e. the outcome of `pbinom(q, size, prob)` is ℙ( ≤ q) , where ~om( = prob, = size). 1c : Given the supplemented total counts for the rest of the genome, perform a new one- sided test to determine whether the methylation level on cytosine site 1 is significant or not.
Converted Read Unconverted Read
(Not methylated) (Methylated)
Cytosine Site 1 40 17
Other Sites 2130 361 P.S. You should not use the background un-conversion ratio in the last question. In your answer, you may use one of the pseudo codes ` pbinom(q, size, prob) `, ` phyper(q, m, n, k) `, and `pchisq(q, df)` to represent the CDF of binomial distribution, hypergeometric distribution, and chi-squared distribution respectively. For hypergeometric distribution, q is the number of white balls drawn without replacement, m is the number of white balls in the urn, n is the number of
black balls in the urn, k is the number of balls drawn from the urn.
1d : Assume you have obtained the following p-values for 5 sites at a locus in the genome:
p-value
Site 1 0.005
Site 2 0.627
Site 3 0.941
Site 4 0.120
Site 5 0.022
Compute the adjusted p-value with Bonferroni correction (if the adjusted p > 1, return the value of 1), and filter the adjusted p-value with alpha = 0.05. Which site remains significant after the adjustment? Name another adjustment method that is less stringent but more powerful than the Bonferroni correcti
In the given DNA bisulfite sequencing experiment, a binomial statistical model can be used to estimate the probability of methylation. The maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) for the methylation proportion at cytosine site 1 can be computed.
Additionally, the one-sided p-value can be calculated to test if the methylation proportion at cytosine site 1 is significantly larger than the known background un-conversion ratio. Lastly, the adjusted p-value with Bonferroni correction can be computed to identify significant sites after multiple testing, and an alternative adjustment method called False Discovery Rate (FDR) can be mentioned.
1a: To model the read count data for a given cytosine site, we can use a binomial distribution. The converted read count represents the number of successes (methylated cytosines), and the unconverted read count represents the number of failures (unmethylated cytosines). The MLE for the methylation probability is the ratio of converted reads to the total reads at that site: 40 / (40 + 17) = 0.701 (rounded to 3 decimal places).
1b: To compute the one-sided p-value for the alternative hypothesis that the methylation proportion at cytosine site 1 is larger than the background, we can use the binomial cumulative distribution function (CDF). The p-value can be calculated as 1 minus the CDF at the observed converted read count or higher, given the background un-conversion ratio. Assuming a size of the total reads (40 + 17) and a probability of methylation equal to the background un-conversion ratio (0.04), the p-value can be computed as pbinom(40, 57, 0.04).
1c: In order to perform a new one-sided test using the supplemented total counts for the rest of the genome, we would need the converted and unconverted read counts for the other sites. However, this information is not provided in the question.
1d: To compute the adjusted p-value with Bonferroni correction, we multiply each individual p-value by the number of tests conducted (in this case, 5). If the adjusted p-value exceeds 1, it is capped at 1. After adjusting the p-values, we can compare them to the significance level alpha (0.05) to identify significant sites. In this case, Site 1 remains significant (adjusted p-value = 0.025), as it is below the threshold. An alternative adjustment method that is less stringent but more powerful than Bonferroni correction is the False Discovery Rate (FDR) correction, which controls the expected proportion of false discoveries.
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Question 54 Which of the following is true regarding leukocidins? O They are secreted outside a bacterial cell They destroy red blood cells O They are superantigens O They are a type of A-B toxin O Th
Among the options listed, leukocidins are NOT a type of A-B toxin. The correct answer is option d.
Leukocidins are toxins that target and destroy white blood cells (leukocytes).
They are typically secreted outside the bacterial cell and can cause damage to the host's immune system by killing white blood cells. Leukocidins are not specific to red blood cells and do not act as superantigens, which are toxins that can overstimulate the immune system.
A-B toxins, on the other hand, are a type of bacterial toxin that consists of two components: an A subunit that is responsible for the toxic effect and a B subunit that binds to target cells.
The correct answer is option d.
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Complete question
Question 54 Which of the following is true regarding leukocidins?
a, They are secreted outside a bacterial cell
b. They destroy red blood cells
c. They are superantigens
d. They are a type of A-B toxin
Transcription: what are the similarities and key differences between transcription in bacteria and eukaryotes? Key terminology: promoter, sigma factor, transcription factors, rho termination protein, RNA polymerases (how many in each?), polarity (5' and 3' ends of nucleic acids).
Similarities between transcription in bacteria and eukaryotes: Both bacteria and eukaryotes use RNA polymerase enzymes for transcription. Transcription involves the synthesis of an RNA molecule from a DNA template.
Bacteria have a single RNA polymerase enzyme, while eukaryotes have multiple RNA polymerases (RNA polymerase I, II, and III) that transcribe different types of RNA. Bacterial transcription termination can occur with the help of the rho termination protein, which binds to the mRNA and causes RNA polymerase to dissociate from the DNA. In eukaryotes, transcription termination is more complex and involves the recognition of specific termination signals. Eukaryotic transcription often involves post-transcriptional modifications, such as splicing of introns, addition of a 5' cap, and addition of a poly-A tail, which are not observed in bacterial transcription.
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7. How does insulin release cause an increased uptake of glucose in skeletal muscle? How is glucose uptake maintained during exercise? Maximum word limit is 200 words.
Insulin release stimulates the uptake of glucose in skeletal muscle by promoting the translocation of glucose transporter proteins (GLUT4) to the cell membrane, allowing increased glucose uptake.
During exercise, glucose uptake in skeletal muscle is maintained through mechanisms such as increased insulin sensitivity, activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), and the contraction-stimulated glucose transport pathway.
Insulin release plays a crucial role in facilitating glucose uptake in skeletal muscle. When insulin is released in response to elevated blood glucose levels, it binds to insulin receptors on the surface of endocrine signaling muscle cells. This triggers a series of intracellular events that lead to the translocation of GLUT4 from intracellular vesicles to the cell membrane. GLUT4 is a glucose transporter protein that facilitates the transport of glucose into the muscle cell. By translocating GLUT4 to the cell membrane, insulin increases the number of glucose transporters available for glucose uptake, resulting in increased uptake of glucose by skeletal muscle cells.
During exercise, glucose uptake in skeletal muscle is maintained through several mechanisms. Firstly, exercise enhances insulin sensitivity, meaning that skeletal muscle becomes more responsive to the effects of insulin, allowing for efficient glucose uptake even with lower insulin levels. Additionally, exercise activates AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), an enzyme that stimulates glucose transport by promoting the translocation of GLUT4 to the cell membrane independently of insulin.
This pathway provides an alternative mechanism for glucose uptake during exercise. Moreover, muscle contraction itself stimulates glucose transport through a process called contraction-stimulated glucose transport. This mechanism involves the activation of intracellular signaling pathways that promote the translocation of GLUT4 to the cell membrane, allowing for increased glucose uptake without relying solely on insulin.
In summary, insulin release promotes glucose uptake in skeletal muscle by facilitating the translocation of GLUT4 to the cell membrane. During exercise, glucose uptake is maintained through increased insulin sensitivity, activation of AMPK, and the contraction-stimulated glucose transport pathway, ensuring an adequate supply of glucose for energy production in active muscles.
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You would expect most endospres to
be difficult to stain
stain easily
The majority of endospores should be challenging to stain, as expected. Certain bacteria create endospores, which are incredibly resilient structures, as a means of surviving unfavourable environments.
Their resilience is a result of their distinctive structure, which comprises a hard exterior layer made of calcium dipicolinate and proteins that resemble keratin. Because of their structure, endospores are difficult to penetrate and stain using conventional staining methods. Endospores must therefore typically be stained using specialised techniques, such as the malachite green method or the heat- or steam-based Schaeffer-Fulton stain. These methods make use of harsher environmental conditions to encourage the staining of endospores. Other bacterial features, such as cell walls or cytoplasm, on the other hand, are frequently simpler to stain using conventional laboratory staining techniques.
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