Answer: By adding growth hormone.
Explanation: Cyclosis also known as protoplasm streaming. By the help of this movement cells are enable to get oxygen and nutrients. Cyclosis is regulated by various factors including, temperature, pH, oxygen concentration, light, cellular injury, cellular shock etc.
Addition of growth hormone 'Auxin' increases the cyclosis i.e. rate of the movement of protoplasm.
Active neurons need ATP to support which of the following?
A) the movement of materials to the soma by axoplasmic transport
B) the synthesis of neurotransmitter molecules C) the movement of materials from the soma by axoplasmic transport
D) the recovery from action potentials
E) all of the above
the axoplasmic transport of materials TO the soma and the axoplasmic transport of materials FROM the soma. the creation of chemicals related to neurotransmitters. recuperation from potentials. Through stimulating microglia, ATP may encourage the rebuilding of synaptic networks.
Extracellular ATP is primarily thought to serve as a rapid excitatory neurotransmitter in neuro-neuronal and neuro-effector synapses by activating postsynaptic P2X receptors. Additionally, ATP stimulates microglia to generate plasminogen, a kind of neurotrophic factor that improves synaptic neurite outgrowth from explants of neocortical tissue and encourages the proliferation of mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons.
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what is the maximum extent to which the parts of the temporomandibular joint can move when opening and closing as measured in degrees of a circle?
Range of motion is the maximum degree of a circle that the temporomandibular joint components can move when opening and closing.
The temporomandibular jointhas two craters that are separated by an articular plate and have fibrocartilaginous surfaces. Separate superior and inferior synovial membranes interline these superior and inferior articular craters.
The entire flow of a joint is a fit achievement; a range of motion (ROM) is the range or limit at which any of the parties may propose a joint or an established point. A tool called a goniometer is used to calculate the range of motion.
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if a retrovirus could infect one of any of these kinds of cells, which would amplify it the most within the first 2 hours?
Cancer cells are the best target to amplify the most within first 2 hours. Highly oncogenic retroviruses are recombinants of viral and host genes.
Retroviruses are viruses with RNA rather than DNA in their genomes that infect cancer cells. Reverse transcriptase is an enzyme that is used to integrate into the DNA of the host cells. It is enhanced to a greater extent the more cell replication takes place. More retroviruses are then produced by the cell, infecting further cells. Many diseases, including AIDS and various types of cancer, are linked to retroviruses.
Low-incidence cancer-causing retroviruses lack inserted host information. Instead, it seems that they alter the expression of potentially carcinogenic host genes, which in turn results in cancer. Retroviruses incorporate proviral DNA into the chromosomal DNA of their host during the course of their regular life cycle. Integrations take place across numerous locations. Although most integrations are benign, some can cause cancer. Many of these seem to encode tyrosine phosphorylating protein kinases.
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how does the cell use the charge differences that bulid up across the inner mitochondrial membrane during cellular resperation
The cell use the charge differences that bulid up across the inner mitochondrial membrane during cellular respiration is to provide ATP.
Within the internal membrane of the mitochondrion, proteins cast off electrons from NADH and FADH2 molecules and by skip them alongside the electron delivery chain, extracting power at every step. The internal mitochondrial membrane carries enzymes referred to as ATP synthases.
The price distinction throughout the membrane forces H+ ions thru channels in those enzymes, truly inflicting the ATP synthases to spin. With every rotation, the enzyme grabs an ADP molecule and attaches a phosphate group, generating ATP. The cell makes use of a procedure referred to as chemiosmosis to provide ATP.
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A researcher isolates the blood of an individual who is sick. The blood is filtered through a porous material that will prevent all cells from passing through. The filtered serum of the blood is then injected into a healthy patient. This patient shows signs of the illness within days of the inoculation. What is the most likely causal agent of the disease based on this information?.
Answer: a virus
Explanation:
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Expression of the GAL, lac and trp structural genes all involve coordinated regulation in response to cellular metabolic needs. Answer the following T/F regarding how this coordinated regulation is achieved.
The binding of galactose to GAL3 prevents GAL3 from associating with GAL80. This is a false statement.
The binding of Gal3 to the Gal80 monomer competes with Gal80 self-association. The Gal80 protein inhibits Gal4p-mediated transcription activation. So GAl3-GAL80 complex is formed not to prevent GAL4p. So the statement is false. The binding of tryptophan to the repressor trpR allows the repressor to bind the operator. This is a true statement. Trp binds to its repressor so that it can bind to the operator. So the statement is true. The binding of cAMP to CAP when glucose is absent allows cAMP-CAP to bind the lac operon promoter and recruit RNA polymerase. This statement is true. In the absence of glucose, cAMP binds to the CAP so that CAP can bind to DNA. DNA-bound CAP helps RNA polymerase attach to the lac operon promoter. So the statement is true.
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what is the term for the type of resistance provided against a pathogen months after infection by that same pathogen?
suppose the extracellular fluid (ecf) osmolality becomes too high. what hormone would most likely be released to correct this situation?
Dehydration or physiological stress can cause an increase in osmolarity above 300 mOsm/L, which in turn increases ADH secretion and water retention, causing an increase in blood pressure. ADH travels in the bloodstream to the kidneys.
vasopressin, also called antidiuretic hormone, a hormone that plays a key role in maintaining osmolality (the concentration of dissolved particles, such as salts and glucose, in the serum) and therefore in maintaining the volume of water in the extracellular fluid (the liquid space that surrounds cells). B (Hypotonic hydration. Hypotonic hydration occurs when extracellular fluid becomes so hypotonic (dilute) that water enters cells. Excess water is present in cells, intracellular compartments, and extracellular compartments.) The main factors that stimulate the production and release of aldosterone by the zona glomerulosa are angiotensin II and the serum potassium concentration. If a disturbance causes the osmolarity of the extracellular fluid to increase, water will flow out of the cell into the extracellular space to balance the osmotic gradient; however, the total body osmolarity will remain higher than normal and the cell will shrink.
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question mode multiple choice question hypovolemia and dehydration are both examples of fluid deficiency. how do they differ? multiple choice question. in hypovolemia only water is lost, and in dehydration both water and electrolytes are lost. in dehydration water is lost, and in hypovolemia both water and electrolytes are lost. they differ only in the amount of fluid lost. in dehydration only water is lost, and in hypovolemia only electrolytes are lost.
In dehydration, water is lost, and in hypovolemia both water and electrolytes are lost.
What is fluid deficiency?
Dehydration occurs when you use or lose more fluid than you take in, and your body doesn't have enough water and other fluids to carry out its normal functions.
Which are types of fluid deficiency?
Deficient fluid volume (also referred to as hypovolemia or dehydration) occurs when the loss of fluid is greater than the fluid input. Common causes of deficient fluid volume are diarrhea, vomiting, excessive sweating, fever, and poor oral fluid intake.
What happens during hypovolemia?
Hypovolemic shock is an emergency condition in which severe blood or other fluid loss makes the heart unable to pump enough blood to the body. This type of shock can cause many organs to stop working.
Thus, water is lost in dehydration, and water and electrolytes are lost in hypovolemia.
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the presence of a gene in the genome does not indicate the expression of that gene. which of the following elements can control gene expression? (mark all that apply) non-coding rna (ncrna) protein such as transcription factors dna enhancer sequences dna topological domains
All responses must be marked (all apply) Gene discovery by sequence analysis. Because genes are not a random collection of nucleotides, but rather contain distinguishing characteristics, sequence examination may be used to find them.
These characteristics indicate whether a sequence is a gene or not, and hence non-coding DNA lacks them by definition.
Temperature, diet, light, pollutants, pathogenic agents, age, and gender/sex are all factors to consider.
Gene expression is often measured by measuring amounts of the gene product, which is frequently a protein. Western blotting and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, or ELISA, are two commonly used protein quantification procedures.
When a gene is activated, transcription occurs, and the protein is produced through translation.
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Full Question;
The presence of a gene in the genome does not indicate the expression of that gene. Which of the following elements can control gene expression? (Mark all that apply)
A-Protein such as transcription factors
B-DNA topological domains
C-DNA enhancer sequences
D-Non-coding RNA (ncRNA)
researchers use a technique called rna interference to significantly decrease, but not completely remove, expression of the bcl2 gene in the amygdala of lab animals. what would be the effect of this change?
researchers use a technique called RNA interference to significantly decrease, An increase in apoptosis would be the effect of this change. RNA interference (RNAi) is a preserved physiological response to double-stranded RNA
RNA interference (RNAi) is a preserved physiological response to double-stranded RNA which helps facilitate barrier to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids as well as transcriptional regulation of nutrient genome. Increased apoptosis is seen in AIDS, neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, ischaemic injury after a heart attack, stroke, or reperfusion, and autoimmune diseases like hepatitis and graft versus host disease.
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Before the development of molecular techniques, scientists classified animals based on shared morphological and embryological characters. Complete the sentences discussing the bases for traditional animal classification. Animals possess specialized ____________ . The division of animals as radial or bilateral is based on each group's body ____________ . The Bilateria are, in turn, divided into three major classifications based upon the structure of the ____________ . This feature is important because it allows for organs to be cushioned by ____________ that is relatively incompressible. Lastly, animals can be classified by the way their zygotes subsequently divide to form a multicellular individual; the embryological pathway can proceed by either ____________ cleavage. cartilage complete or incomplete fluid mitotic or meiotic nucleic acids organs radial or spiral tissues symmetry DNA BODY CAVITY FLUID BONE
Animals possess specialized tissues. The division of animals as radial or bilateral is based on each group's body symmetry. The Bilateria are, in turn, divided into three major classifications based upon the structure of the body cavity. This feature is important because it allows for organs to be cushioned by fluids that is relatively incompressible. Lastly, animals can be classified by the way their zygotes subsequently divide to form a multicellular individual; the embryological pathway can proceed by either radial or spiral cleavage.
The classification of animals is seen based on the symmetry of their bodies. Symmetry is the similarity of parts in various areas and directions of the body, concerning being cut by several axes or planes. Based on the symmetry of their bodies, animals can be classified as follows:
Asymmetrical animals, cannot be divided into equal parts by any plane. For example, a sponge.Bilateral symmetrical animal, its body can be divided into 2 equal parts if it is cut by only 1 plane. For example, the phylum Chordata.Biradial symmetry animal, its body can be divided into 2 equal parts if it is cut by 2 planes. For example, sea anemones.Radial symmetry animals, their bodies can be divided into equal parts if cut with various planes. For example, hydra sp and Echinodermata.Learn more about the classification of animals' body symmetry at https://brainly.com/question/238772
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consider a hypothetical couple, john and jennifer, both of whom had brothers who died of a disease caused by a recessive lethal disorder (aa). what is the genotype of their parents?
The genotype of an organism is the make-up of its DNA, which results in the phenotype, or the traits that can be seen in an organism. Each nucleic acid in a DNA molecule that codes for a specific attribute makes up a genotype.
The interplay of proteins produced by the DNA determines the external appearance, or phenotype. Finding the DNA regions that are responsible for different phenotypes is now simpler because to advancements in DNA analysis tools.
Recessive lethal inheritance refers to an inheritance pattern where an allele is solely fatal in the homozygous form and where the heterozygote may be normal or have some altered non-lethal trait.
Only wild-type homozygotes and heterozygotes would be seen in crosses between heterozygous individuals carrying a recessive lethal allele that results in death before delivery when homozygous.
In other cases, the dominant (but non-lethal) phenotype of the recessive deadly allele could also be present in the heterozygote.
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what is the difference between an epsp and an ipsp? predict whether activation of a given neurotransmitter receptor will generate an epsp or an ipsp.
An EPSP has a higher reversal potential than the action potential threshold, whereas an IPSP has a lower reversal potential than the threshold.
PSPs actually reduce the likelihood that the postsynaptic cell will generate an action potential at many other synapses. Excitatory (or EPSPs) PSPs increase the likelihood of a postsynaptic action potential occurring, while inhibitory (or IPSPs) PSPs decrease this likelihood.
The IPSP reduces the membrane potential of neurons, making action potentials less likely. A postsynaptic cell has fewer inhibitory connections, but they are closer to the soma.
Signals sent across excitatory synapses increase neuron activity, while signals sent across inhibitory synapses decrease neuron activity. The type of channel that is coupled to the receptor, as well as the concentration of permeant ions inside and outside the cell, determine whether a postsynaptic response is an EPSP or an IPSP.
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Which balanced redox reaction is occurring in the voltaic cell represented by the notation of a l ( s ) | a l 3 + ( a q ) | | p b 2 + ( a q ) | p b ( s ) ?.
As a redox reaction takes place, a voltaic cell generates power. The reduction potentials can be used to gauge a voltaic cell's voltage.
Do voltaic cells undergo redox reactions?As a redox reaction takes place, a voltaic cell generates power. The reduction potentials of the half reactions can be used to calculate the voltage of a voltaic cell. Batteries, a practical source of electricity, are made from voltaic cells.
What kind of operation takes place in a voltaic cell?natural redox reactions
A voltaic cell, often referred to as a galvanic cell, is an electrochemical cell that produces electricity by redox reactions that occur on their own.
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State what form of energy an impala would be
for the lion before he eats it and after he eats it.
Answer: That energy to maintain body temperature and perform other metabolic functions.
Explanation:
ivory coast and china are two developing nations. china has a much larger per capita ecological footprint than ivory coast. this is most likely due to
China has a much larger per capita ecological footprint than ivory coast due to III) Ivory Coast's dependence on small scale and subsistence agriculture.
Ivory Coast is well known for its religious and ethnic harmony, as well as its well-developed economy. This Western African country was hailed as a model of stability.
China's rapid economic growth is due to two main reasons that are large-scale capital investment financed by large domestic savings also foreign investment and rapid productivity growth. China is the world's largest manufacturing economy and exporter of goods. They are world's fastest-growing consumer market and second-largest importer of goods.
The above question is incomplete
Ivory Coast and China are two developing nations. China has a much larger per capita ecological footprint than Ivory Coast. This is most likely due to:
I. China's larger population.
II. China's growing dependence on fossil fuels to drive their economy.
III. Ivory Coast's dependence on small scale and subsistence agriculture.
IV. Ivory Coast's much smaller GDP.
Hence ,III is the correct option
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in the united states, disinfection of drinking water with chlorine or other methods is done to remove: group of answer choices sand and gravel. pathogenic microorganisms. none of the choices bad smells. particles suspended in water.
In the United States, disinfection of drinking water is primarily done to remove pathogenic microorganisms. Correct option is B.
Chlorine and other disinfection methods are used to kill or inactivate harmful bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens present in the water to make it safe for consumption. Disinfection is a crucial step in water treatment to protect public health by reducing the risk of waterborne diseases caused by these microorganisms.
While water treatment processes may involve removing particles suspended in water, including sand and gravel through filtration, and can also help address bad smells, the primary purpose of disinfection is to ensure the water is free from harmful pathogens.
Water Disinfection:
Water disinfection is a crucial step in the process of treating drinking water to make it safe for consumption. The main objective of disinfection is to eliminate or inactivate harmful microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, and parasites, that may be present in the water. These microorganisms can cause waterborne diseases and pose serious health risks to the population if not properly removed.
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Which type of biotechnology is used by scientists when they alter the dna of a plant to make it grow faster?.
Answer:
Recombinant DNA and biotechnology both have been resourced to produce the efficiency of plant growth by increasing the efficiency of the plant's ability to fix nitrogen.
Explanation:
(5 pts.) woodrats are medium sized rodents with lots of interesting behaviors. you may know of them as packrats. let's assume that the trait of bringing home shiny objects (h) is dominant to the trait of carrying home only dull objects (h). suppose two heterozygous individuals are crossed a: hh 1 b: hh 2 c: hh 1 what will be the genotypic ratio of the offspring?
Answer:
the genotypic ratio of the offspring will be 3:1 for bringing home shiny objects versus dull objects respectively.
Explanation:
Denoting:
H as dominant trait
h as recessive trait
Heterozygous means that the alleles are different on the gene for a specific trait. In this case, both parents have the traits of bringing home both shiny and dull objects but since bringing home shiny objects is the dominant trait, it is the only trait that they would act on.
parental phenotype: shiny objects 》 shiny objects
parental genotype: Hh 》 Hh
Parental gametes: (H) (h) 》 (H) (h)
random fertilization: punnet square
H h
H HH Hh
h Hh hh
F1 generation phenotype: shiny objects 》dull objects
F1 generation genotype: HH, Hh, Hh 》 hh
offspring ratio: 3 : 1
percentage: 75% shiny objects 》 25% dull objects
a man has a large inversion on one of his chromosomes. how might this impact his offspring? no impact because all genetic information is retained severe phenotypic abnormalities caused by unbalanced chromatids fewer autosomes because normal synapsis during meiosis does not occur minor genetic abnormalities due to minimal deficiency in genetic material
The remaining one-fourth will have chromosomes 4 and 12 in their normal positions. Three-fourths will have at least one translocated chromosome.
An individual's whole chromosomal set is known as their karyotype. A laboratory-created representation of a person's chromosomes separated from a man or woman cell and put in numerical order is also referred to by this word. To check for irregularities in chromosomal range or structure, a karyotype may be utilised.Your doctor can discover whether there are any abnormalities or structural issues with the chromosomes by analysing them using karyotyping. There are chromosomes in almost every cell in your body. They consist of the genetic make-up you inherited from your parents.
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describe the effect of increasing the efferent radius on glomerular capillary pressure and filtration rate
An growth in efferent radius will lower each capillary stress and filtration rate. With an expanded radius, the blood might be capable of float quicker out of the glomerular and reduce filtration rate(much less urine is produced), and the stress will drop while the blood quantity is decreased.
An growth withinside the efferent arteriolar diameter (lower in resistance) reasons a lower withinside the glomerular capillary hydrostatic stress and a lower in GFR. A lower withinside the diameter of the efferent arteriole has the other effect.
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this amino acid sequence is found in a tripeptide: met-trp-his. give a possible nucleotide sequences on the template strand of dna that can encode this tripeptide. please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button. answer choices 5'-tacaccgta-3' 5'-auguggcau-3' 3'-auguggcau-5' 5'-tacacagta-3'
5'-AUGUGGCAU-3'. The codon table may be used to identify the probable mRNA nucleotide sequences encoding for the tripeptide Met-Trp-His.
We can see from the table that the amino acid this has two possible codons, whereas Met and Trp each have one codon. As a result, the tripeptide might be encoded by two distinct mRNA nucleotide sequences. The template and non-template DNA strands can be produced from these prospective mRNA sequences after the nucleotide sequences for the potential mRNA have been identified.
Dual mRNAs codons
5'-AUGUGGCAU-3'Non-template for DNA:
5'-ATGTGGCAT-3'
DNA template
3'-TACACCGTA-5'
5'-AUGUGGCAC-3'
Non-template for DNA:
5'-ATGTGGCAC-3'
Template for DNA:
3'-TACACCGTG-5'.
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blocking afferent action potentials from the chemorecep- tors in the carotid and aortic bodies would interfere with the brain's ability to regulate breathing in response to a. changes in ph b. changes in pco2 c. changes in blood pressure d. changes in po2
It would be difficult for the brain to control breathing in response to -
(option c) change in blood pressure.
A chemoreceptor, sometimes referred to as a chemosensory receptor, is a specialized sensory organ that converts a chemical substance (either endogenous or produced) into a biological signal. If the chemoreceptor is a neuron, the signal may take the form of an action potential; otherwise, it may take the form of a neurotransmitter that can activate a nerve fibre. Examples of such specialised cells include taste receptors and internal peripheral chemoreceptors like the carotid bodies. An increase in the breathing amount of carbon dioxide in the blood, for example, is one alteration that a chemoreceptor can detect in physiology (hypercapnia).
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Cecropias are known for the mutualistic relationship they have with which creature?.
The mutualistic association that cecropias have with creature ants is well documented.
What function does a cecropia moth serve?The adult stage of the cecropia moth exists solely for mating and egg-laying. Cecropia moths must survive as adults on the fat reserves they stored while they were caterpillars. They actually only have a short lifespan and are completely mouthless.
How uncommon are cecropia moths?The International Union for Conservation of Nature has not evaluated the cecropia moth, but it doesn't appear to be all that uncommon to find in the United States. On a maple or birch tree, you might be able to catch one in the spring or summer.
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is dna attracted to the anode or cathode? which is applied to the top of the casket/gel and which is applied to the bottom of the casket/gel. why?
In gel electrophoresis, the anode is positively charged. DNA is a negatively charged molecule, which attracts different charges, so DNA migrates towards the anode during gel electrophoresis.
Gel electrophoresis is the experimental method for the separating mixtures of the DNA, RNA, or the proteins by the molecular size. In gel the electrophoresis, the molecules to be separated are to be forced into the gel containing small pores by the electric field. What is the Principle of Gel Electrophoresis? Gel Electrophoresis and DNA DNA is negatively charged, so when an electric current is passed through the gel, the DNA migrates towards the positively charged electrode. Fragments are ordered by size because short DNA strands migrate through the gel faster than long strands.
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where would you find a kelp forest? group of answer choices in a salt marsh in a silty coastal area in an estuary along a continental shelf in a coral reef
Answer:
Cool, shallow waters closer to shore
Explanation:
what is the relationship between recombination frequency and the actual physical distance on a chromosome?
As physical distance increases, the recombination frequency first increases in a linear fashion, but gradually levels off to a frequency of 0.5.
What is the relationship between recombination frequency and the physical distance between genes on a chromosome?
Recombination frequency is inversely proportional to the distance between the genes present on a chromosome.
Does recombination increase with distance?
As the distance between two genes increases, so does the number of crossover events between them, but recombination is only seen if the number of crossovers is odd. So for distant genes the probability of an odd or even number of crossovers becomes 50%, meaning this is the maximum recombination frequency.
What is recombination frequency?
Recombination frequency (θ) is the frequency with which a single chromosomal crossover will take place between two genes during meiosis. A centimorgan (cM) is a unit that describes a recombination frequency of 1%.
Thus, recombination frequency is inversely proportional to physical distance.
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cancerous growths are clonal in origin because cancer cells . multiple choice question. can invade healthy tissues originate from a single cell that has accumulated genetic changes during cell division can migrate to other areas of the body and form secondary tumors at the new sites can form a tumor that is localized only at one site
Cancerous growths are clonal in origin because of cancer cells originate from a single cell that has accumulated genetic changes during cell division.
The human body contains several billion cells. Cells are the teeny, tiny building blocks of our tissues and organs. Every one of us was once a single cell. That cell divided into two new cells after internal replication.
Cells become abnormal when the DNA, which holds the instructions needed for cells to operate, is damaged. The cells they make after that will not be similar to healthy ones. Along with having a variety of appearances, they might also possess different traits. The medical word for this kind of abnormal cell proliferation in body tissue, including skin, is dysplasia. As long as there aren't many abnormal cells and our immune system controls them, we won't get sick from them.
Sometimes these cells can vanish on their own. Only when these cells continue to change and start to divide erratically, leading to lumps or growths, does one of the more than 200 diseases recognized as cancer become apparent. These kinds of growths are tumors.
The complete question is:
Cancerous growths are clonal in origin because of cancer cells __________.
multiple choice questions.
(A). can invade healthy tissues originating from a single cell that has accumulated genetic changes during cell division
(B) can migrate to other areas of the body and form secondary tumors at the new sites
(C) can form a tumor that is localized only at one site
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ronald myers and roger sperry transected both the optic chiasm and corpus callosum in a group of research cats, and then put a patch on one eye. this had the effect of
Ronald Myers and Roger Sperry transected both the optic chiasm and corpus callosum in a group of research cats, and then put a patch on one eye. this had the effect of a split brain.
Because there are two routes for visual information to pass from one eye to the contralateral hemisphere, Myers and Sperry excised the corpus callosum and the optic chiasm from each cat in their main experimental group.
The folded cerebral cortex is a component of the gray matter of the brain. The grooves between the folds create fissures. The longitudinal fissure is the greatest fissure in the cerebral cortex that separates the brain's two hemispheres. The corpus callosum is made up of white matter. The corpus callosum acts as a natural connection between the two hemispheres of the brain. Roger Sperry excised a portion of the corpus callosum while researching ways to treat epilepsy. The LVF, which is controlled by the right side of the brain, only transmits visual information to the right hemisphere, whereas RVF only transmits visual information to the left. There are two writing implements required. Try to sketch both of the images at once, one on each piece of paper, as soon as you see them. the body's left side. The actions of your right body are controlled by your left brain. The left and right visual fields of each eye are separate regions; this illustrates the impact of a split brain.
The complete question is:
Ronald Myers and Roger Sperry transected both the optic chiasm and corpus callosum in a group of research cats, and then put a patch on one eye. this had the effect of ___________.
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