As the amount of lateral gene transfer in a taxon increase, it becomes more difficult to infer relationships among lineages within the taxon and more difficult to infer species boundaries.
Phylogenetic trees made up of sequences from the same group of species can diverge due to lateral genetic transmission. Tree comparisons can be used to pinpoint the lineages that might have shared genetic information in cases where topological discordance is believed to have resulted from genetic transfer events. A series of subtree prune and regraft (SPR) operations can be used to represent an "edit path" of one or more transfer events, however, determining the best set of operations for this purpose is NP-hard for comparisons between rooted trees and possibly for unrooted trees as well.
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if the micturition reflex is primarily controlled by parasympathetic innervation, then how is it that you have voluntary control of when you choose to urinate?
If the micturition reflex is primarily controlled by parasympathetic innervation,
The external urethral sphincter is under skeletal muscle control.
What is skeletal muscle?
The skeleton contains one of the three essential muscle tissues in the human body. Each skeletal muscle is made up of thousands of muscle fibers coated in connective tissue sheaths. The various bundles of muscle fibers that make up skeletal muscles are known as fasciculi.
Skeletal muscle are voluntary muscles that are controlled by the somatic nervous system. The other forms of muscle include cardiac muscle, which is striated, and smooth muscle, which is non-striated. Both of these muscle groups fall into the category of being involuntary, or controlled by the autonomic nervous system.
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individuals iii-3 and iii-4 are expecting their first child when they become aware that they both have a family history of this recessive condition. as their genetic counselor, you can calculate the probability that they are carriers and that their child will be affected with the condition. complete each statement by dragging the correct label to the appropriate location. labels can be used once, more than once, or not at all.
The probability that they are carriers and that their child will be affected with the condition is 2/3, 1/2, 1/12
As you can see the below image you get clarity about the probability of child for individuals iii3 and iii4 .The probability of him inheriting an r from either parent is 1/2 .so that means 2/3 of the options involve him being a carrier.Only rr genotype is affected, so the probability is 1:4. However, there is only 1/2 probability that their mother is affected and 1/2 that their father is. To work out their probability based on this we have to multiply the probabilities: 2/3 x 1/2 x 1/4 = 1/12.
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Sequence and model each step in the replication of a DNA
molecule. Write about what happens, and draw a DNA molecule going through each step. In the last box, describe and draw the products of replication.
The sequence and model each step in the replication of a DNA
molecule are:
a) the DNA unzips
b) the nucleotides in the cell attach to the unzipped chains
How is DNA replicated?The act of replicating one double-stranded DNA molecule into two additional ones is known as replication. One of a cell's most fundamental functions is the replication of its DNA. Opening the double helix and separating the DNA strands, priming the template strand, and putting together the new DNA segment are the three main phases in the replication process.
The DNA double helix uncoils its two strands at a site known as the origin during separation. The strands are subsequently primed, or made ready, for replication by a number of proteins and enzymes. The construction of the new DNA strands is then orchestrated by a unique enzyme known as DNA polymerase.
The other steps involved are:
c) the molecule continues to unzip, and the nucleotides continue to join
d) two new DNA molecules form, each containing one parental and one new strand.
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which can result from aldosterone hypersecretion or renal failure? multiple choice question. hypovolemia dehydration hypotonic hydration volume excess
hypovolemia can cause result from aldosterone hypersecretion or renal failure
A state of low extracellular fluid volume known as hypovolemia is typically caused by coupled salt and water loss. To maintain homeostasis, all living things must keep their fluid balances in check. At about 50% to 60% of the total weight, water is the most prevalent fluid in the body. The extracellular fluid (ECF), which makes up about 25–45% of total body water, and the intracellular fluid (ICF), which makes up 55%–75% of total body water, are further divided. The intravascular and extravascular (interstitial) spaces make up the remainder of the ECF. ECF is the component that can be measured more easily because arterial blood pressure can be used to estimate it.
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If bicoid mrna is injected at the anterior end of an egg from a bicoid mutant mother, what would the phenotype of the resulting larva be?.
The larva would be normal if bicoid mRNA was injected at the anterior end of an egg from a bicoid mutant mother.
A larva is a different juvenile form many animals go through before transformation into men. Bicoid (Bcd) controls rudimentary deoxyribonucleic acid expression by transcriptional incitement and translational constraint.
Both functions demand the homeodomain (HD), which identifies DNA patterns at aim gene enhancers and a particular order break in the 3' untranslated region of Caudal (CAD) mRNA. Bicoid protein represses the rewording of posterior mRNA and improves the transcription of beginning breach genes containing hunchback, orthodenticle, and buttonhead.
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1) what is the nucleophile in the reaction catalyzed by dna polymerase? why is this significant for the initiation of dna synthesis?
What might plant cells do with the sugars made during photosynthesis?
_____________________________
Plant cells are the basic unit of life in organisms of the kingdom Plantae. They are eukaryotic cells, which have a true nucleus along with specialized structures called organelles that carry out different functions. Plant cells have special organelles called chloroplasts, which create sugars during the process of photosynthesis.Plants use the energy of the sun to change water and carbon dioxide into a sugar called glucose. Glucose is used by plants for energy and to make other substances like cellulose and starch. Cellulose is used in building cell walls, meanwhile starch is stored in seeds and other plant parts as a food source.In conclusion to this, it is likely that once the plant cells have forged the sugars during photosynthesis, they will send the necessary amount of sugars to the mitochondria, where in which it will be broken down to produce energy (ATP).
^(NOTE)^: Mitochondrion (mi-to-chon-dri-on) is an organelle found in large numbers in most cells, in which the biochemical processes of respiration and energy production occur. It has a double membrane, the inner layer being folded inward to form layers (cristae).________________________________________________________
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When did scientists first begin transferring mrna from one species into the cells of a different species?.
In 1961, the scientists whilst Brenners first begin transferring mRNA from one species into the cells of a different species.
It began out in 1961, whilst Brenner and associates defined the presence of an volatile intermediate molecule that copies the statistics encoded via way of means of the DNA and directs the synthesis of proteins: RNA.
The institution round Brenner labored with virus-inflamed cells and analysed the gene expression. They concluded that the protein-encoding statistics isn't found in solid ribosomal RNA. Instead, a brief RNA molecule acts as a transcript of the genetic code. This RNA turned into termed messenger RNA (mRNA). Ribosomes synthesise proteins in step with the statistics dictated via way of means of mRNA (Brenner et al., 1961).
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Which reservoir receives most of the carbon from industrial combustion, the burning of fossil fuels?.
The oceans are, via way of means of far, the biggest reservoir of carbon, observed via way of means of geological reserves of fossil fuels, the terrestrial surface (plans and soil), and the atmosphere.
The biggest reservoir of the Earth's carbon is placed withinside the deep-ocean, with 37,000 billion heaps of carbon stored, while about 65,500 billion heaps are discovered withinside the globe. Carbon flows among every reservoir through the carbon cycle, which has sluggish and speedy components.
Rocks like limestone and fossil fuels like coal and oil are garage reservoirs that incorporate carbon from flowers and animals that lived tens of thousands and thousands of years ago. When those organisms died, sluggish geologic strategies trapped their carbon and converted it into those herbal resources.
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Michelle and Keith are apparently normal, but their daughter was born with alkaptonuria, an inherited metabolic disorder. If alkaptonuria is like most human hereditary disorders, the probability of their next child being born with alkaptonuria is:
The likelihood that their subsequent child will be born with alkaptonuria is 1/4 if the ailment is genetic like the majority of human diseases.
Only three-fourths of the F2 exhibited the dominant phenotype, compared to 100% of the F1.
Tyrosine and phenylalanine are two of the amino acids that make up proteins, and alkaptonuria, often known as black urine sickness, is a relatively rare genetic disease that inhibits the body from completely metabolizing these amino acids. It causes the body to accumulate homogentisic acid, a chemical. This can eventually cause a variety of health issues and render the urine and other bodily fluids a dark color. Chemical processes are typically used to break down amino acids. However, homogentisic acid, a chemical created along the way, cannot be further decomposed in alkaptonuria. This is due to improper operation of the enzyme that usually breaks it down. Proteins called enzymes are responsible for causing chemical reactions. Darkly stained diapers are one of the condition's early warning signs since homogentisic acid turns urine black when it's exposed to air for a few hours. The illness might not be recognized until maturity if this symptom is missed or disregarded in a baby or kid because there are typically no other obvious symptoms until the person is in their late twenties and early thirties.
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q3.2. do you think this population of snails will evolve as predators start eating them? why or why not?
No, the population will not evolve toward thicker shells, because there is no variation in shell thickness. so there weren't any snails that were more or less difficult to eat.
The term "population" refers to all citizens who are either permanently residing in a nation or are just temporarily absent from it. This indicator displays the population of a given area on a regular basis. Growth rates are the yearly changes in population brought on by births, deaths, and net migration. The mean calculated from the total group, distribution, or population.
In broad terms, a snail is a shelled gastropod. The name is most frequently used to refer to land snails, which are pulmonate gastropod molluscs. When used in this broad meaning, the word "snail" refers to many different kinds of freshwater and marine snails in addition to land snails.
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if a mutation occurs in the somatic tissue, approximately how many of the gametes will carry the mutation?
None: Only those mutations that occur in the germ line and result in gametes will have a chance of being passed on to progeny. An alteration in DNA that occurs after conception.
Somatic mutations can occur in any of the body's cells except germ cells (sperm and egg) and are therefore not passed on to children. These alterations can (but not always) cause cancer or other diseases. Mutations in somatic cells are called somatic mutations. Because they do not occur in the cells that give rise to gametes, the mutation is not transmitted to the next generation sexually. Human somatic cells have 46 chromosomes: 22 pairs and 2 sex chromosomes that may or may not form a pair. This is the 2n or diploid condition. Human gametes have 23 chromosomes, each of 23 unique chromosomes, one of which is a sex chromosome. Somatic cells are the cells in the body other than sperm and eggs (called germ cells). In humans, somatic cells are diploid, meaning they contain two sets of chromosomes, one inherited from each parent. Mutations in a somatic cell occur in somatic cells and are transmitted by mitosis, resulting in cancer. However, mutations in a gamete are passed on by meiosis, resulting in mutated offspring. A genetic mutation occurs during DNA replication, and chromosomal mutations occur during meiosis.
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sequences that are conserved, that is, similar in many different organisms, are unlikely to be functionally important. true false
The made claim is False. Conserved sequences, or those that are similar across a wide range of organisms, are unlikely to be crucial in terms of function.
A living item is considered an organism if it has an organized structure, can respond to stimuli, reproduces, grows, adapts, and maintains homeostasis. So every living thing on Earth that is an animal, plant, fungus, protist, bacterium, or archaeon qualifies as an organism. Any organic, living system that performs as a separate unit is considered an organism in biology. Cells make up every living thing in the ecosystem. Taxonomy divides living things into categories like multicellular animals, plants, and fungus, or unicellular microbes like protists, bacteria, and archaea. Three groups of living things—producers, consumers, and decomposers—can be distinguished among an ecosystem's inhabitants. Each of them is crucial for the ecosystem.
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if an organic nerve toxin (acting at the neuromuscular junction) renders the ion channel of postsunaptic actetylcholine receptors permenently open, the toxin would most likely to
It causes prolonged depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane.
Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) are postsynaptic potentials that increase the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire an action potential in neuroscience. By allowing positively charged ions to enter the postsynaptic cell, ligand-gated ion channels open, causing a brief depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane potential. These are the opposite of inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs), which are often caused by the movement of either positive or negative ions into or out of cells. While IPSPs are occasionally brought on by an increase in positive charge outflow, EPSPs can also come from a reduction in positive charge outflow. Excitatory postsynaptic current is the ion flow that creates an EPSP (EPSC).
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the ear canal ends at a tightly stretched membrane called the cochlea. please select the best answer from the choices provided t f
The tympanic membrane is also called the eardrum. Separates the outer ear from the middle ear. When sound waves reach the tympanic membrane, they cause it to vibrate.
The cochlea (auditory inner ear) transforms sound into a neural message. The function of the cochlea is to transform the vibrations of the cochlear fluids and associated structures into a neural signal. At the end of the ear canal is the eardrum. The eardrum is a thin membrane that separates the ear canal from the middle ear. The eardrum is attached to a part of the first hearing bone called the malleus. The ear canal and eardrum are covered with skin just like the skin on the outside of the body. The basilar membrane is a rigid structural element within the cochlea of the inner ear that separates two fluid-filled tubes that run along the spiral of the cochlea, the scala media and scala tympani.
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in the e-test, the zone of inhibition is elliptical around the plastic strips impregnated with antibiotics. what information do you get when you know the point at which the bacterial growth touches the strip?
The information that we get when we know that the point at which the bacterial growth touches the strip is you know the concentration of a chemical that bacteria are resistant to.
According to the e-test, when the bacterial growth touches the strips then this means that they are growing in the zone of inhibition. Only those bacteria can grow in the zone of inhibition that is resistant to the particular antibiotic.
Hence, when the bacterial growth touches the strip we get to know the concentration of bacteria that have moved to the zone of inhibition and still managed to grow. This causes the bacteria to grow in resistant environments.
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What are examples of types of chemical markers associated with dna that determines when, where and by how much genes are expressed in each cell?.
The study of how cells influence gene activity without modifying the DNA sequence is known as epigenetics. In Greek, "epi-"means "above," thus "epigenetic" refers to variables other than the genetic code.
3 examples of epigenetic factors;
DNA Methylation is one type of epigenetic modification. DNA methylation works by introducing a chemical group into the DNA.Histone transformation. DNA wraps around proteins known as histones.Non-coding RNA (non-coding RNA). Your DNA serves as a blueprint for the production of both coding and non-coding RNA.Two epigenetic processes involved in gene expression control are DNA methylation and histone post-translational modifications (PTMs) [4]. Since the 1960s, DNA methylation has been discovered and widely investigated in bacterial DNA.
Histone methylases (HMTs), histone acetyltransferases (HATs), and histone deacetylases (HDACs) regulate gene expression.
Mutagens are exogenous agents that cause genetic alteration. Mutagens frequently induce changes in the chemical structure of nucleotides, resulting in substitutions, insertions, and deletions in the DNA sequence.
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_________ is the heritable variation among individuals of a single population or within the species as
a whole.
A) Species diversity
B) Genetic diversity
C) Natural selection
D) Coevolution
E) Extirpation
Answer: Genetic Diversity
Explanation:
regarding x-linked traits, if a father with normal color vision has children with a heterozygous mother, what percentage of the daughters will have normal color vision?
The daughters, who are known as carriers because one of their X chromosomes has the mutation but the other one is normal, are typically unaffected if only the father or mother has the faulty X-linked gene.
If sons receive the defective X-linked gene from their mother, they will be afflicted.
Describe X-linked inheritance. There is a 50% possibility that daughters will carry the gene and be able to pass it on to the following generation. A daughter has a 50% probability of not having the gene and not being able to pass it on.
Yes, a female can inherit a copy of the gene that causes colorblindness from her father, is the short response. She will actually most likely be colorblind if her father is.
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3) the seed coat's most important function is to provide a) a nonstressful environment for the megasporangium. b) the means for dispersal. c) dormancy. d) a nutrient supply for the embryo. e) desiccation resistance.
The function of the seed coat is to protect the inner workings of the seed hence, the answer is e) desiccation resistance.
The outer coating that protects a seed is known as the seed coat. Numerous varieties of seeds are included by the definition of seed coat. Distinct types of seeds have different seed coats that can seem different. Seed coatings can be more robust and thick or more delicate and thin depending on the type of seed. For instance, coconut seeds have a lot thicker, more durable seed coat than bean seeds, which have a much thinner seed coat. Seeds come in both light and dark shades. Cream, black, green, yellow, and brown are among the colours. The interior seed structures receive information about environmental stressors from the seed coat as well. Typically, when seeds identify the ideal circumstances for water, light, moisture, and temperature, the seed coat cracks. The embryo appears from the seed once it has opened.
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If animals that are normally seasonal are kept in a laboratory and receive no information about changes in day length or temperature (i.e. housed in constant dark), their circannual rhythms will
become free-running
The correct option is B ; become free running , If animals that are normally seasonal are kept in a laboratory and receive no information about changes in day length or temperature become free running .
The circadian rhythm typically consists of a 24-hour cycle for most people. Some people's endogenous or natural rhythms, however, do not correspond to this 24-hour period.
For instance, those who are blind and unable to distinguish between natural and artificial light frequently experience free-running sleep patterns.
The typical effects of exposure to heat or cold are an increase in wakefulness and a decrease in slow wave and rapid eye movement sleep. Thermoregulation, which affects the mechanism regulating sleep, is strongly correlated with these effects of the thermal environment on sleep stages.
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Full Question
If animals that are normally seasonal are kept in a laboratory and receive no information about changes in day length or temperature (i.e. housed in constant dark), their circannual rhythms will
a. persist, with a period of 365 days.
b. become free-running.
c. disappear.
d. persist, but only in females.
PLSSS HELP IF YOU TURLY KNOW THISS
Succession is the process of gradual change through adaptation from one community to another.
What is succession?Succession or ecological succession is the process whereby the community of plants and animals occupying a particular habitat gradually changes.
The community of plants and animals living in a particular habitat keeps changing because the habitat itself keeps changing. Thus, organisms living in the habitat have to keep adapting to the changing habitat.
However, if there are no major disruptions to the changing community, it eventually reaches a point whereby very little to no changes occur again. Such a community is known as a climax community.
Succession can be primary or secondary. Primary succession starts from the scratch in a place that has never held life before that just got newly colonized with life. Secondary succession happens when a community undergoing primary succession experiences a major disruption.
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when the difference in ph across the membrane of a glass electrode at 25 oc is 3.75 ph units, how much voltage is generated by the ph gradient?when the difference in ph across the membrane of a glass electrode at 25 oc is 3.75 ph units, how much voltage is generated by the ph gradient?
About 222 mV is generated by the pH gradient.
The Nernst equation determines the electrochemical cell potential at any given temperature, pressure, etc. It explains how cell potential relates to both the activities of electrically active (electroactive) species and standard potential.
The voltage generated across a membrane because of the hydrogen ion concentration gradient is [tex]E=\frac{2.303RT}{nF} \times\Delta pH[/tex]. Here, E is reduction potential, T is the temperature in kelvin, R is the universal gas constant, n is ion charge, and F is the Faraday constant.
Given, T=25°C=25+273=298K and pH=3.75. We know that, R=8.314J/mol.K and F=96485J/V.mol.
Then,
[tex]\begin{aligned}E&=\left(\frac{2.303\times8.314\times298}{1\times96485}\right)\times3.75\\&=0.0591\times3.75\\&=0.2216\\&=\mathrm{0.222\;V}\\&\approx\mathrm{222\;mV}\end{aligned}[/tex]
The answer is 222 mV. Therefore, the correct option is B.
The complete question is -
When the difference in pH across the membrane of a glass electrode at 25 °C is 3.75 pH units, how much voltage is generated by the pH gradient?
A. Not Enough Information to Determine
B. 222 mV
C. 180 mV
D. 273 mV
E. 0.222 mV
F. 0.273 mV
G. 3.75 mV
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thinking bigger: how early-life environmental exposures shape the gut microbiome and influence the development of asthma and allergic disease
The imbalance, or dysbiosis, of the gut microbiome of babies has been linked to an increased risk of asthma and allergic diseases. Most studies To date, they have provided a wealth of data showing correlations
between disease risk factors in early life and changes in the structure of the gut microbiome that disrupt normal immunoregulation. These studies have generally focused on a specific risk factor, such as the mode of delivery or the use of antibiotics in the first years of life. Such "micro-level" exposures have a considerable impact on affected individuals, but not necessarily on the entire population. In this review, we place these mechanisms under a broader lens that takes into account the influence of upstream "macro-level" environmental factors, such as air pollution and the built environment. While these exposures are likely to have a minor impact on the microbiome at the individual level, their ubiquitous nature gives them great influence at the population level. We focus on the characteristics of the artificial indoor and outdoor environment, their microbiomes, and the research challenges inherent in integrating built environment microbiomes with the early-life gut microbiome. We argue that an exposome perspective that integrates internal and external microbiomes with macro-level environmental factors may provide a more comprehensive framework for defining how environmental exposures may shape the gut microbiome and influence allergic disease development.
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The ________ nervous system provides involuntary regulation of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glandular activity.
autonomic
The autonomic nervous system controls glandular, cardiac, and smooth muscle activities in an automatic manner.
Which nerve system is responsible for involuntary control?The autonomic nervous system of the peripheral nervous system regulates automatic physiological processes like digestion, blood pressure, respiration, and sexual desire.
The somatic nervous system: What does it do?To enable us to create a reaction, the brain and spinal cord must process and integrate the information from multiple sources. In order to perform our daily activities, the somatic nervous system connects the central nervous system (CNS) with organs and striated muscle.
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Explain why siblings may share similarities but are not identical.
Siblings may share similarities but are not identical because they have different genetic makeup due to the segregation of chromosomes in gametic parental cells and the process of crossing over.
Why are siblings not genetically identical?Siblings are not genetically identical because the gametes in the parent suffer a process known as chromosome segregation, which involves the segregation of different homologous chromosomes in the germinal cells before the process of fertilization.
Moreover, the formation of the gamete cells also suffer another process that increases the genetic variation of the resulting meiotic cells called crossing over or recombination, which is well known to change genetic fragments between non sister chromatids.
Therefore, with this data, we can see that siblings are not genetically identical but share similarities because the zygote derives from cells having different genetic makeup due to the segregation of chromosomes and crossing over.
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Which change would cause a shift to the left in the oxygen-hemoglobin binding curve?.
Factors like a decrease in temperature and a CO2 increase in pH could cause a shift to the left in the oxygen-hemoglobin binding curve.
An enhanced oxygen affinity of hemoglobin is shown by a left shift, reducing the amount of oxygen that is available to the tissues.
The curve swings to the left as pH rises. This happens as a result of a shift in amino acid residues brought on by a higher hydrogen ion concentration, which stabilizes deoxyhemoglobin in a state (the T state) with a decreased affinity for oxygen.
The curve moves to the left as CO2 levels drop; CO2 has two effects on the curve. First, as CO2 builds up, carbamino molecules are produced. These compounds bind to oxygen to form carbaminohaemoglobin. Deoxyhaemoglobin is stabilized in the T state by carbaminohaemoglobin.
The curve shifts to the right when the temperature rises and to the left when the temperature falls. Thermostats do not have a significant impact, but hypothermia and hyperthermia cases also show the effects.
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1. the glms ribozyme is a unique strategy for regulating the production of glcn6p. precisely what is the ribozyme controlling?
Glms ribozyme stands for glucosamine 6 phosphate riboswitch ribozyme. It is used in metabolic pathway and the ribozyme controlling is glucosamine 6 phosphate riboswitch.
Summary, the glmS ribozyme is a small-molecule-structured catalytic RNA this is substantial amongst Gram-superb bacteria, wherein it regulates a key metabolic pathway. It employs the small molecule GlcN6P now no longer to facilitate folding, however as a part of the lively site, as a cofactor or coenzyme.
The GlmS ribozyme is thought to take advantage of a fashionable acid-base catalytic mechanism withinside the presence of glucosamine-6-phosphate (GlcN6P) to boost up self-cleavage via way of means of about six orders of magnitude. Glms ribozyme stands for glucosamine 6 phosphate riboswitch ribozyme.
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true or false he carrying capacity of p. aurelia living alone (without p. caudatum) in gause's lab flask with nutrients is about 550
The carrying capacity of Paramecium aurelia living alone (without p. caudatum) in gause's lab flask with nutrients is about 550. This is a true statement.
Paramecium populations reached carrying capacity on day 12. This was because that day was the largest amount of paramecium ever recorded.
Competition is a type of population interaction in which the fitness of one species is significantly reduced in the presence of another species. This occurs when multiple species compete for the same resource, limiting it and adversely affecting both interacting species.
Both Paramecium aurelia and Paramecium share the same niche because he was grown together in one flask using bacteria as a food source.
From the above figure, we can see that Paramecium aurelia grew well in the mix, but Paramecium caudatum did not. Therefore, Paramecium caudatum (less competitive) was eliminated because he could not compete with Paramecium aurelia (more competitive) for the same limited food source.
This is because two closely related species competing for the same resource cannot coexist indefinitely, and when resources are limited, the competitively inferior species will eventually be eliminated. An example of Gause's principle of competitive exclusion.
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what is the order of the trna binding sites on the 70s ribosome with respect to the 5' to 3' direction of the mrna?
E P A is the correct order of the trna binding sites on the 70s ribosome with respect to the 5' to 3' direction of the mrna.
What is Ribosomes?
Ribosomes are the biological machinery responsible for producing proteins. Numerous ribosomes, each of which has two subunits, are present in every cell. Before proceeding down the messenger RNA molecule's length and reading each three-letter codon, these two subunits tightly close the molecule. The transfer RNA binds to the ribosome and shares a base sequence with the messenger RNA.
Making proteins takes place at ribosomes, an intercellular structure composed of both RNA and protein. The messenger RNA (mRNA) sequence is translated by the ribosome into a specific string of amino acids that form long chains and fold to form proteins.
The ribosome, which functions as a cell's factory for protein synthesis, is a complex molecule consisting of proteins and ribosomal RNA molecules. Ribosomes were first identified by George E. Palade in 1955. He described them as cytoplasmic particles that selectively bind to the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. Palade and other researchers found that ribosomes carried out protein synthesis in cells; for this work, he was honored with the Nobel Prize in 1974.
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