Incandescent light bulbs, which have high output of red light, are least effective in promoting c) phototropism.
In the field of biology, phototropism can be described as the movement of parts of plants towards or away from light. Generally, the shoots of a plant are considered to be positively phototrophic as they move toward the light. On the other hand, roots are considered to be negative phototropic as they move away from light.
The red light that is present in incandescent light bulbs is the light that shows the least amount of effect of phototropism. This is because the pigments present inside the plant cells do not have a signal for the red light. Yellow light is the most favorable for plants to show phototropism.
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which joint is highlighted? which joint is highlighted? sternoclavicular sternal end acromioclavicular acromion
Joint which is highlighted is : acromioclavicular. The acromioclavicular joint is formed by the cap of the shoulder and the collar bone and is held together by strong ligaments.
What is the function of acromioclavicular (AC) joint ?The AC joint is a plane type synovial joint, which allows only gliding movement under normal physiological conditions. It attaches the scapula to the thorax, hence it allows an additional range of motion to the scapula and helps in arm movement such as shoulder abduction and flexion.
AC joint inflammation causes pain on the top of the shoulder and also at the point where the collarbone meets the highest point of the shoulder blade . Pain may spread to the lower part of the side of the neck or ear.
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Determine the product of each pair of percentages or fractions.
1. 25% x 25% =
4. ½ x ¾=
2.4 x 4 =
3.75% x 50% =
5.25% x 0% =
6. 50% x 50% =
Answer:
1. 0.0625
2.3 by 8
3.0.375
4.16
5.0
6.0.25
Everyone is exposed regularly to ionizing radiation found in the soil, water, and air and from cosmic rays. In fact, 80% of the ionizing radiation people are exposed to comes from naturally occurring sources. Ionizing radiation can cause double-strand breaks in the DNA. Often, the DNA breaks have missing nucleotides at the broken ends. What type of repair would likely be used, and what would be the result of repairing this type of damage?
A. Nonhomologous end joining would be used and would lead to properly repaired DNA.
B. Direct repair would be used to join the DNA, but errors would still remain.
C. Nonhomologous end joining would be used to join the DNA, but errors would still remain.
D. Direct repair would be used and would lead to properly repaired DNA.
C
The result of repairing this type of damage would be, C. Non-homologous end joining would be used to join the DNA, but errors would still remain.
The double-strand breaks are fixed utilizing, non-homologous end joining (NHEJ), without a homologous sequence.
After the double-strand break removes some nucleotides from the ends, DNA ligase IV ligates the two ends. First, Ku proteins bind to the ends and recruit DNA-PKcs, which then recruit Artemis (a nuclease), which will remove any single-stranded DNA in that region.
Non-homologous end joining would be used to join the DNA, but errors would still remain because NHEJ results in the deletion of a small number of nucleotides. As a result, this is an error-prone repair mechanism.
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this information will be used for the next four questions. wheat kernel color is an additive trait controlled by two genes, gene a and gene b. the a1 and b1 alleles add 1 unit of color to the kernels. the a2 and b2 alleles add 0 units of color to the kernels. what is the best description of the a2 and b2 alleles?
This is the case of complete dominance.
What is complete dominance?
When one allele, or "version," of a gene completely obscures another, complete dominance occurs. Being "dominant" over the trait which is not expressed refers to the trait that is expressed. The majority of organisms are diploid, which means that each gene is received twice, once from each parent. An organism may possess a gene that has undergone a harmful mutation and be able to function since it possesses a healthy copy of the gene due to the protective effect of having two copies of each gene. Due to the fact that most organisms, including you, have two copies of each gene, scientists use the terms "dominant" and "recessive" genes to describe which one manifests as a specific characteristic.
In this the a1 and b1 act as a dominant allele , which add to the color and a2 and b2 are recessive one , which are completely masked by the other one . So it adds 0 unit to color .
Hence , a2 and b2 acts as recessive allele .
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Ligase catalyzes a reaction between the 5'-phosphate and the 3'-hydroxyl at the ends of DNA molecules. The enzyme calf intestinal phosphatase catalyzes the removal of the 5'-phosphate from DNA molecules.
What would be the consequence of treating the vector, before ligation, with calf intestinal phosphatase?
A) It would prevent the ends of the plasmids from being ligated.
B) It would prevent the plasmid's DNA from reversing polarity during ligation.
C) It would reverse the polarity of plasmids' DNA
D) It would ligate the ends of the plasmids.
A) It would prevent the ends of the plasmids from being ligated.
Ligases would avoid ligating the ends of the plasmids. The right response is option (A).
Ligases are enzymes that can catalyze the reaction of combining two big molecules by creating a new chemical bond, typically with concurrent hydrolysis of a minor chemical group on one of the bulky molecules or simply linking of two chemicals. The Ligase enzyme's role is to catalyze the removal of phosphate groups from the 5' ends of DNA strands by dephosphorylation. It specifically works to prevent the re-ligation of plasmid DNA that has been linearized using this technique so that additional DNA fragments cannot be ligated into the vector. In cloning, it is especially useful.
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if you buy food in a can that is bulging or spurts liquid, the food is likely to contain toxins produced by a type of bacteria called
if you buy food in a can that is bulging or spurts liquid, the food is likely to contain toxins produced by a type of bacteria called clostridium botulinum.
Under low oxygen levels, the bacterium Clostridium botulinum releases harmful toxins. One of the deadliest poisons ever discovered is a botulinum toxin. In addition to obstructing nerve activity, botulinum toxins can cause respiratory and muscle paralysis. Gram-positive, rod-shaped, anaerobic, spore-forming, motile, and capable of producing the neurotoxin botulinum, Clostridium botulinum is a bacterium.
The majority of bacteria are free-living, omnipresent organisms that frequently just have one biological cell. They make up a sizable group of prokaryotic bacteria. Bacteria, which are among the earliest life forms to exist on Earth and are typically a few micrometres in length, are found in most of its environments. Some bacteria aid in food digestion, eliminate disease-causing cells, and supply the body with vital vitamins.
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Brett learned that his car is better protected from the weather when it has been recently washed and waxed. Which best describes the major group of macromolecules that is protecting his car and how it is performing this task?.
Brett discovered that his car is better protected from the elements when it has recently been washed and waxed. The lipid in the wax coating is the macromolecule that protects his car.
What are lipids?The lipid is a macromolecule composed of carbon and hydrogen that is hydrophobic in nature and does not come into contact with water.
Because the wax is a lipid, it does not like water, and when it is applied to the car, it is protected from water damage.
Brett discovered that when his car has recently been washed and waxed, it is better protected from the elements. The macromolecule that protects his car is the lipid in the wax coating.
Thus, this is the major group of macromolecules that is protecting his car and the way it is performing this task.
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a. moves water and solutes from the renal tubules into the peritubular capillaries b. is called secretion c. is called reabsorption d. occurs as water and solutes move from the glomerulus to the glomerular capsule.
The first step of urine production occurs as water and solutes move from the glomerulus to the glomerular capsule.
What is Urine Production?
Unwanted compounds are filtered out of the blood by the kidneys, which then eliminate them through urine. Glial filtration, reabsorption, and secretion are the three primary processes that lead to the generation of urine.
The glomerular capsule, also known as Bowman's capsule, surrounds the glomerulus, a network of capillaries. A filtration membrane in the capsule allows water and other solutes to pass from the capillaries into the bloodstream as it passes through the glomerulus.
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a mudslide takes out half of a population of cliff-nesting swallows. which of the statements is true about this event?
a mudslide takes out half of a population of cliff-nesting swallows. follwoing options are true, option A, B, D. option c is false.
A mudslide is a large amount of mud that slides down a mountain, causing damage or destruction in most cases. Landslides happen when large amounts of rock, earth, or debris slide down a slope. Debris flows, also known as mudslides, are a type of fast-moving landslide that typically occurs in channels.Thus, evolution is the change in characteristics and traits in species and their nature that explains the origin and growth of life on Earth. And it is true that it also explains the diversity that this process generates. Mudslide has affected nearly 18million population between 1988-2007.
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The complete question is:
a mudslide takes out half of a population of cliff-nesting swallows. which of the statements is true about this event?
A- Variant A will be favored by natural selection since these females lay more eggs and will eventually replace variant B.
B. Variant B will be favored by natural selection due to less physical strain in laying a smaller clutch and will eventually replace variant A.
C. It is impossible to determine from this information. It is not the
D- Events like mudslides do not affect the evolution of species like this since they randomly kill some individuals.number of eggs that are laid but the number of offspring that survive.
Which of these is NOT needed for evolution by natural selection to occur?
Photosynthesis !! And animal represent?
what does the left and side and right side mean ? The top and bottom in words of summary? And the evidence to support the meaning thanks:) !
Answer: Left side means that the plant autotrophs from the sunlight which means it get food. On the right side it means that the chloroplast in the plant cell is making photosynthesis. Down side means that the animal cellular respiration is that the animal cell is breaking down the food and making it into energy which sends it to the ATP which is the powerhouse of the cell.
Explanation:
1.7 draw some of the cells you see. do you see coenobia? if so, how many cells do you typically see per coenobium?
Coenobia cells under the microscope could be seen in the picture attached below. We typically see 4 to 8 cells per coenobium.
What is coenobia?Coenobia is a colony of algae that lives and acts as a single organism. They stay together with the help of a common membrane. The cells are often held together in a jelly excreted so they can move as one individual. Coenobia may exist in a single cell, but they more often contain 4 to 8 cells per coenobium. They also may have two long spine end cells protruding from the outer corners, as per the image.
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What amino acid sequence is encoded in the partial DNA segment?
Question 2 options:
Serine- Threonine-Tyrosine
Serine-Serine-Tyrosine
Serine-Threonine-Methionine
Serine-Alanine-Methionine
In DNA sequence 3’ T C A T G C A T G 5’ mRNA sequence is 5' A G U A C G U A C 3' and amino acid codes (genetic codon) serine, threonine, and tyrosine.
What is a genetic codon?The genetic codon is the triplet of the mRNA sequence which codes an amino acid sequence in polypepetide chain.
DNA sequence is transcribe into mRNA by the process of transcription and mRNA is translate into amino acid squence by translation.
Therefore, 3’ T C A T G C A T G 5’ encoded amino acid sequence is serine, threonine, and tyrosine.
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Which uses of soil are discussed in the video? check all that apply. as a habitat for smokey (the) bear as a way to clean and store air as a place for plants and crops to grow as a material to clean and smooth skin as a building material for homes and buildings as a way to prohibit public access to forests
The discussion of soil's functions includes growing environments for plants and commodities, skin-cleansing and smoothing agents, and construction supplies for houses and other structures.
Successful agriculture depends on healthy soil, which is where we get the nutrients needed to grow crops. Plants like tomatoes that we consume get nutrients from the earth. Animals eat food, which includes nutrients. In the end, good soil is beneficial to us.
Mud frequently includes vitamins, minerals, and trace components that the body can readily absorb. Mud also aids in lowering the appearance of aging, boosting circulation, constricting big pores, removing blackheads, and clearing acne.
The number of different particle sizes in raw soil that is acceptable for earth building should be adequate to protect the material from problems including excessive shrinkage, bulging, cracking, & bond failure. Since clay holds the bigger particles together, soil clay content plays a significant role in earth building.
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Answer:
3, 4, and 5.
Explanation:
a group of cels is assayed for dna content immediately following mitosis and is found to have an average of 8 picograms of dna per nucleus. how many picgorams wouldbe found at the end of s and hte end of g2
The cell cycle is split into the- G1 section additionally referred to as the increase section, the S -section additionally referred to as as synthesis section, the G2 section needed would be 24 picograms.
As given withinside the question, the DNA content material right away after mitosis is 12 picograms of DNA in keeping with nucleus.
DNA synthesis takes place withinside the S -section. The G1 section undergoes the increase of the mobileular and additionally prepares for S-section. Thus, at some stage in the G1 section because the DNA replication does now no longer take area the awareness of DNA withinside the cells stays the equal that is 12 picograms.
The G2 section is the section that takes place after S-section. As the DNA receives replicated the awareness of the DNA receives doubled.
Thus, the awareness of DNA withinside the cells on the G2 section could be 24 picograms.
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You are a bio-researcher on the planet Tawniwani, and you have been given the task of identifying and classifying the native fauna. Use this dichotomous key to identify Tawniwanian creature t.
Dichotomous keys are used to identify and classify organisms into a taxonomic group according to their morphological traits. In the exposed example, individual T is a Narrowus trispottis.
What is a dichotomous key?
The dichotomous key is a classification system used to identify organisms according to different traits -usually morphological traits-.
This is a simple method since the key provides two options, and the researcher needs to choose one of them according to the organism's features. Once the researcher has chosen one of the options, the key leads to the following description.
The procedure is the same in each step until the name of the taxonomic group is provided.
In the exposed example, we need to identify the organism T (the last one). We know we need to follow 4 steps before reaching our individual's name. So,
1) Does it has a large or small head? It has a small head, so we need to move to step 2.
2) Does it has a narrow or round body? It has a narrow body, so we need to move to step 6.
6) Does it has curly or straigh antennae? It has curly antennae, so we need to move to step 11.
11) Does it has narrow or round eyes? It seems like it has narrow eyes, so it might be Narrowus trispottis.
According to this dichotomous key, the T individual is a Narrowus trispottis.
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which is more resistant to fatigue, cardiac or skeletal muscle? what is the anatomical basis for this difference and why is it important?
Cardiac muscle cells contain many mitochondria that provide the necessary energy for the cell in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), making them highly resistant to fatigue.
Because cardiac muscle has more mitochondria than skeletal muscle, it is resistant to fatigue. It is up to 35 percent mitochondria, compared to just 1-2 percent in skeletal muscle. Mitochondria are necessary for the generation of ATP, which supplies cells with energy. The rapid, involuntary contraction and relaxation of the heart muscle are vital to pumping blood throughout the cardiovascular system. To achieve this, the structure of the heart muscle has distinct characteristics that allow it to contract in a coordinated manner and resist fatigue. This is mainly because the heart is made of cardiac muscle, which consists of special cells called cardiomyocytes. Unlike other muscle cells in the body, cardiomyocytes are highly resistant to fatigue.
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Which is an agent that causes a mutation in dna or chromosomes?nondisjunctionkaryotypemutagenphenotype.
The agent that causes a mutation in DNA or Chromosomes is mutagen phenotype.
What is mutation?
A mutation is a change in our DNA sequence that results from errors made during DNA copying or environmental factors.
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evolutionary development of a head and brain containing neural and sensory organs is a process called
Cephalization is the process through which the head and brain, which contain neurological and sensory organs, evolve.
What is Cephalization?The mouth, sense organs, and nerve ganglia get concentrated in the front of an animal over many generations, creating a head area. This is known as cephalization. This is connected to mobility and bilateral symmetry, resulting in a distinct head end for the animal. As a result, three different animal groups—arthropods, cephalopod molluscs, and vertebrates—developed very complex brains.
What is bilateria?The majority of animal phyla belong to the big group known as the Bilateria, which is distinguished by cephalization. These are able to move by contracting their muscles, and their body plans feature a front end that is the first part of the body to be stimulated as the animal moves forward. As a result, many of the body's sense organs, including those that can detect light, chemicals, and gravity, have developed in the front end. Additionally, a group of nerve cells that can process the data from these sense organs frequently exists. In some phyla, this group of nerve cells forms a brain, whereas in others, it forms one or more ganglia.
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which cells carry antigen-specific receptors and are stimulated when antigens bind to those receptors?
The surface immunoglobulin that serves as the B cell antigen receptor (BCR) has two functions in B cell activation. First, like the antigen receptor on T cells, it transmits signals directly into the cell when it binds to the antigen receptor. antigen.
B cells have B cell receptors (BCRs) on their surface, which they use to bind to a specific protein. Once B cells bind to this protein, called an antigen, they release antibodies that attach to the antigen and prevent it from harming the body. The antigen receptor on most T cells, the α:β T-cell receptor, is composed of two protein chains, the α T-cell receptor and the β T-cell receptor, and resembles in many respects a single immunoglobulin Fab fragment. T cell receptors are always membrane bound. The membrane-bound immunoglobulin on the surface of B cells serves as the cell's receptor for the antigen and is known as the B cell receptor (BCR). Terminally differentiated B cells, plasma cells, secrete immunoglobulin with the same antigen specificity as antibody.
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with age, the spine stiffens as a result of shrinkage of the intervertebral disc spaces, and the vertebrae become brittle. this increases the risk of
With age, the spine stiffens as a result of shrinkage of the intervertebral disc spaces, and the vertebrae become brittle. This increases the risk of Compression fractures.
What is compression fracture?
When one or more vertebrae are under too much stress, they might collapse and result in a spine compression fracture. Serious spinal compression fractures might impair your quality of life with painful or incapacitating symptoms.
With rest, the use of a brace, and painkillers, the majority of compression fractures resulting from injuries heal in 8 to 10 weeks. However, if surgery was performed, recuperation might take significantly longer.
Therefore, age causes the intervertebral disc gaps to contract, which stiffens the spine and makes the vertebrae more fragile. Compression fractures are now more likely as a result of this.
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Which type of noncovalent interaction supports the double helix of dna and produces the base pairings a–t and g–c?.
Hydrogen bonding noncovalent interaction supports the double helix of DNA and produces the base pairings A-T and G-C.
The two different types of nucleic acids are as follows:
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Both RNA and DNA molecules couple their bases. Adenine, uracil, guanine, and cytosine are the bases found in RNA molecules while guanine, adenine, cytosine, and thymine are found in DNA molecules.
A is always linked with T in a DNA molecule, while G is always coupled with C, and base T is changed to base U in RNA. There is a weak hydrogen connection that can be easily broken between a base pair and the double helix of the DNA molecule.
The complete question is:
Which type of noncovalent interaction supports the double helix of DNA and produces the base pairings A-T and G-C?
a. ion-dipole interactions
b. dipole-dipole forces
c. ion-ion interactions
d. London dispersion forces
e. hydrogen bonding
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according to eysenck’s theory, the ascending reticulocortical activating system (aras) is located in what part of the brain?
The ascending reticulocortical activating system (aras) is located within the hypothalamus and brainstem.
What is eysenck's theory?
According to Eysenck's theory of personality, extroverts' cortical arousal at rest is lower compared to that of introverts. Scholars have thus hypothesized that extroverts should benefit from background music in cognitive tasks, whereas introverts' performance should decline with music in the background.
What is the function of the ARAS?
The ascending reticular activating system (ARAS), also known as the extrathoracic control modulatory system or simply the reticular activating system (RAS), is a set of connected nuclei in the brains of vertebrates that is responsible for regulating wakefulness and sleep-wake transitions.
What happens if the RAS is damaged?
Damage to the RAS causes unconsciousness, resulting in not being awake or aware. Along the length of the brainstem, there are midline raphe nuclei and two lateral types of nuclei: the medial group of nuclei and the small group of nuclei.
Thus, ARAS is located within the hypothalamus and brainstem.
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The portion of the nephron that empties into the collecting duct is the A. glomerulus.B. ascending loop of Henle.C. distal convoluted tubule.D. proximal convoluted tubule. E. descending loop of Henle.
The correct option are (c) Distal convoluted tubule .The distal convoluted tubule (DCT) is a portion of kidney nephron between the loop of Henle and the collecting tubule.
The distal convoluted tubule (DCT) is the nephron segment immediately downstream of the macula densa. Although the DCT is the smallest part of the nephron, measuring just around 5 mm in length in humans , it is essential for a number of homeostatic functions such as salt chloride reabsorption, potassium secretion, and calcium and magnesium management.
The DCT has a unique ability to adjust to changes in hormonal stimuli and tubular lumen contents, and this mechanism contributes to the pathophysiology of several clinically important situations, including loop diuretic resistance and hyperaldosteronism.
In recent years, insights acquired from Mendelian blood pressure and electrolyte imbalance illnesses, genetically engineered animal models, and molecular cloning and research of important genes have been published.
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a dominant mutation in gene d can cause disease symptoms. gene d encodes an enzyme. the activity of the enzyme in homozygous normal individuals is 100%. the activity of the enzyme in heterozygotes is 25%. this observation is consistent with
The mutation mentioned here is a dominant negative.
Define mutation.
A mutation is a change in our DNA sequence that can be brought on by environmental factors like UV light and cigarette smoke or mistakes made when the DNA is copied.
When a mutant receptor prevents the function of the wild-type (WT) version of the receptor, the condition is known as a dominant-negative (DN) mutation.
A DN mutation generally results in a mutant polypeptide whose activity is reduced in comparison to the co-expressed wild-type protein. Dominant-negative mutations are known as antimorphs, indicating that they have the opposite impact of the gene from which they were produced, according to an early genetic study.
Oncogenes are examples of DN mutations that arise spontaneously. When only one copy of the gene is functioning, haploinsufficiency is frequently used to compare negative dominance . Since it directly affects the phenotypic diversity in this situation, the expression level of this gene is significant. Trisomy 21, which is brought on by errors in the genes producing transcription factors and other key proteins, is a classic example of a condition brought on by haploinsufficiency.
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at the end of tca cycle, glucose is converted to the final product, co2, and all the energy are released in the form of atp/gtp.
The end products of the TCA (tricarboxylic acid) cycle include 6 NADH, 2 ATP and 2FADH2.
The tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or the citric acid cycle, is a series of eight-step processes, where the acetyl group of acetyl-CoA is oxidized to form two molecules of CO2 and in the process an ATP is produced. High energy reduced compounds, NADH and FADH2 are also produced. Two molecules of acetyl-CoA are produced from each molecule of glucose, so two rounds of the Krebs cycle are required, resulting in four CO2, six NADH, two FADH2 and two ATP. The tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle) is the second stage of cellular respiration, the three-step process by which living cells break down organic fuel molecules in the presence of oxygen to grow and divide the energy obtained after harvesting. This metabolic process occurs in most plants, animals, fungi and many bacteria. The TCA cycle takes place in the matrix of intracellular structures called mitochondria.
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be able to convert raw experiences into localized brain activations. can many seemingly different experiences be induced by altered activity in a single (but perhaps large) brain region?
Different activities can induce many experiences in a single large brain region.
For example, when we run. We need to move our legs and arms, and coordinate both of them simultaneously. Not only that but eyes also needed to synchronize all of the movement in our body and environment. All of that systems were using part of the human brain named the Cerebellum.
Cerebellum will help our brain and body coordinate and regulate. This is just one example out of many movements and regulations that needed single large brain regions to function.
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Imagine a population evolving by genetic drift in which the frequency of the k allele is 0. 2. What is the probability that at some point in the future allele k will drift to a frequency of 1? your answer should be a one decimal place answer.
The k allele's starting frequency is 0.2 0 or 20%. Consequently, there is a 20% chance that allele k's frequency changed to 1.
What effects does genetic drift have on allele frequencies?Summary. Genetic drift differs from natural selection in that it is independent of an allele's favorable or unfavorable consequences. Instead, as random subsets of individuals (and their gametes) are sampled to create the following generation, drift alters allele frequencies entirely by chance.
What does it mean for allele frequencies to change within a population?Allele frequencies in a population are a reflection of genetic diversity. Allele frequencies that fluctuate over time may be a sign of genetic drift or a population that has undergone new mutations.
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check your understanding cyu 12.1 what are the three main areas of investigation (categories of evidence) accompanying a new fossil find?
The three main areas of investigation accompanying a new fossil find are impression fossils, trace fossils, and replacement fossils. Fossils are the remains or traces of ancient life that have been preserved by natural processes.
Impression fossils preserve the prints or impressions of extinct plants or animals. The plant or animal makes an impression when it touches down in mud, silt, or sand. It eventually vanishes, yet the effect endures. The mud, silt, or sand becomes rock and a fossilized impression is left behind. Trace fossils document the behavior of extinct creatures. In the soft mud, silt, or sand, these animals leave their prints or scats, which leave impressions. The soil preserves a sign of the animal when it solidifies into rock, just way impression fossils do. Replacement fossils are exact copies of objects that were once alive, like trees and aquatic life. These living things become imprisoned, perish, and are covered with water that is mineral-rich. The organic components decompose and are replaced by silica, a hard mineral. The minerals fill in the gaps and produce a substitute or duplicate fossil of the live object.
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What makes radiation dangerous to cells?
A. It is uncontrollable and very warm.
B. It has very high energy waves and can break up DNA.
C. It encourages the building of more cells and overloads the body with new cells.
D. It cools cells down to a temprature where cells cannot reproduce.
Answer:
The answer would have to be B because it can cause damage to the DNA
3. using a schematic depiction of the red blood cell cytoskeleton showing the major components, name and describe the all the protein structures and their functions (spectrin, actin, etc.). describe how these proteins are important to maintain the rbc deformability and flexibility in check. make sure to include a picture or a drawing pointing to each specific structure.
The major proteins found in the cytoskeleton of RBCs are as follows:
(A) Ankyrin complex - The ankyrin complex serves as an anchor for the cytoskeleton of red blood cells (RBCs) to the cell membrane. This complex, which is predominantly made up of band 3, protein 4.2, and ankyrin, is formed during the development of RBCs.
Nine band-3-associated complexes' cryo-electron microscopy structures show that protein 4.2 stabilizes the cytoplasmic region of the band 3 dimer. The superhelix-shaped ankyrin, which connects two band 3 dimers in the ankyrin complex, binds to protein 4.2 via ankyrin repeats (ARs) 6–13 and to a different band 3 dimer via ARs 17–20.
(B) Spectrin -The big, cytoskeletal protein known as spectrin has a modular structure made up of and subunits. Spectrin generally comprises 106 consecutive amino acid sequence motifs known as "spectrin repeats.
The integrity and structure of the cell membrane as well as the shape of a cell depend on the presence of spectrin. Additionally, it supports several cell processes include cell adhesion, cell spreading, and the cell cycle. Human disorders include cancer, type 5 spinocerebellar ataxia, hereditary hemolytic anemia, and others are caused by spectrin mutations.
(C) Junctional complex - These are the origins of the junction between the RBC and the outside environment, and from this location, cations and anion exchange that are needed for the cell's regular day-to-day operations may be obtained.
(D) F-actin A thin, membrane-bound F-actin network called the F-actin cortex controls cell shape. The F-actin cortex also creates tension and remodels the cellular periphery via myosin-II contractility.
(E) Tubulin-There are three different types of tubulin. -
(i) Sedimentable tubulin: Sed-tub, a form of tubulin found in the sedimentable fraction ("Sed-tub") of human erythrocytes, is sensitive to the drugs taxol and nocodazole, which alter microtubule assembly and disassembly, and is arranged as a protein network rather than in the typical microtubule form.
(ii) Membrane tubulin - Tubulin interacts with the plasma membrane at several different levels, including as an integral membrane protein, an attachment via palmitoylation, surface binding, and microtubules linked to proteins in the membrane via linker proteins.
(iii) Cytosolic tubulin: A dynamic cytoskeletal structure conserved in all eukaryotic cells, the tubulin heterodimer polymerizes to produce microtubules. Microtubules have critical functions during cytokinesis and interphase in addition to their conserved function throughout cell division (mitosis and meiosis).
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